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UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 


























o 


CARPENTER’S AND BUILDER’S 


ASSISTANT, 

AND 

WOOD WORKER’S 

GrTJIDEL 


Revised and Enlarged 



BY 

LUCIUS D. G-OULD, 

1 \ 

Architect and Practical Builder. 


FOURTH REVISED EDITION. 


\ 


NEW YORK: 



WILLIAM T. COMSTOCK, 

Architectural Designer and Publisher, 

6 ASTOR PLACE. 

1 8 8 2 . 








Copyright, 1882. 

LUCIUS D. GOULD. 





PREFACE. 


The experience of workmen generally will testify that books 
have, as yet, furnished them but small assistance in the theory and 
art of construction. The object of the author in publishing this 
work, is to furnish them with rules for finding sections of pieces 
placed in any position; for cutting every description of joints; 
for finding the form of the raking mould at any point divergent 
from the straight line ; for springing and bending mouldings ; for 
mitering circular mouldings, and planes oblique to the base at any 
angle; and an easy system of building stairs and railing for straight 
and platform stairs. And eight plates containing steel square 
problems. 

Together with these rules, the author presents tables of the 
weight, and cohesive strength, of the different materials used in 
the construction of buildings, as well as the weight required to 
crush said materials ; a treatise on the adhesion of nails, screws, 
iron pins and glue; and a geometrical and mathematical demonstra¬ 
tion for finding the circumference, and squaring the circle. 

There can be but little doubt that a work of this kind is needed 
by Architects and Builders, and especially by Carpenters and 
Wood-workers, who are inexperienced in the different kinds of 
labor which they are called upon to perform. 

It is but due to acknowledge that we have consulted the valuable 
works of Thomas Tredgold for the articles on the strength and 
weight of materials ; also Mr. Nicholson, of London, for the 
glossary of technical terms. 


CONTENTS. 


EjIST O IF 1 IF» I_i -A. T E S - 


PAGE. 

Plate i. 6 

To form an actagonal prism without instruments or tools. 

To find the size of a piece, to form a six sided prism when one of 
the sides is given. 

Plate 2. 8 

To find the backing of hip rafters for obtuse and acute angled 
buildings. 

To find the length of common rafters. 

Plate 3. io 

To square the circle, also the ellipse. 

To find the mitre line of a right angle. 

To find the diagonal or mitre line for an octagonal prism. 

Plate 4. 12 

To find the intersecting or mitre line for hexagon and three-sided prism. 

To find the degree of elevation with the square. 

Plate 5. 14 

To find the mitre and butt joint of a mill hopper when plaeed at 45 0 
elevatioif. 

To find the mitre and butt joint of a piece placed at any angle of 
elevation. 4 

Plate 6. 16 

To find the mitre and butt joint of a piece oblique to the base over 
an acute angle. 

Plate 7. 18 

To find the mitre and butt joint of a piece placed oblique to the 
base over an obtuse angle. 

Plate 8. 20 

To find the height of an obelisk with the square. 

To find the distance to an inaccessible object. 

To find the distance between two inaccessible objects. 

Plate 9 —The carpenter’s square. 22 

Plate 10. 24 

To form an ellipse. 

To draw a polygon. 

To form a false ellipse. 

Plate 11. 26 

Timber foundation for a frame building. 

Plate 12— Balloon frames. 28 

Plate 13— Butting and jointing timbers. 30 

Plate 14— Framing. 32 

Plate 15 . 34 

Figure 1. Hip and jack rafters. 

Figure 2, Circular stairs. 

Figure 3, Roof framing span 40 to 70 feet. 

Plate 16 —Roof with internal angles. 36 

Plate 17 —Plan and elevation of obtuse and acute angled buildings, 

projection of rafters and braces. 38 




























CONTENTS. 


5 


PAGE. 

Plate 18—Mitre-box—octagonal and hexagonal roofs. 40 

Plate 19—Spires. 42 

Plate 20—Curve of sprung moulding. 44 

Plate 21—Bevels : acute and obtuse angles. 46 

Plate 22—Area of a circle and contents of a globe. 48 

Plate 23—Brackets. 50 

Plate 24—The raking mould. 52 

Plate 25—Rule for finding mitre lines. 54 

Plate 26—Circular and square pans. 56 

Plate 27—Circular desk and seat. 58 

Plate 28—Angle of rafter for French roof. 60 

Plate 29 —Mitreing of circular mouldings. 62 

Plate 30—Sash and Door tools. 64 

Plate 31— Corinthian truss. 66 

Plate 32—Stairs. 68 

Plate 33—Straight and Platform stairs. 70 

Plate 34—Hand railing. 72 

Plate 35 —Groin arches. 74 

Plate 36—Squaring the circle. 76 


TABLES AND MISCELLANEOUS MATTER. 

Table showing length of brace. 7 

Practical method of finding contents in cubic feet. 9 

Superficial contents. 11 

Construction of roofs. 13 

Roof coverings. 15 

Long measure. 17 

Square measure. 19 

Strength of materials. 21 

Posts. 23 

Weights of materials. 25 

Adhesion of nails.27 & 29 

Adhesion of screws and iron pins and length of iron nails. 33 

Adhesion of glue. 35 . 37 & 39 

Metric system of weights and measures..41 & 43 

Protection against rust. 43 

Properties of various woods. 45 

How to measure grain bins. 45 

Miscellaneous notes and rules.47 &49 

Terms used in carpentry. 51 to 75 

Valuation of plasterers’ work. 66 















































PROBLEMS. 


PLATE i. 

STEEL SQUARE PROBLEMS. 

The Carpenter's Square is an instrument in general use, 
and is as important and valuable to the workman as the 
clock is to the time-keeper, or the compass to the mariner. 
The square consists of a blade and tongue, placed at right 
angles to each other. The blade is two feet long; the 
tongue twelve to sixteen inches long, divided into inches 
and eighths of an inch. This and the following plates 
will demonstrate a few of the uses to which, the square 
may be applied. 

Figure i.— Having a piece of wood three (3) inches 
square; wishing to form an octagonal prism, not having 
any instruments or tools convenient, I bisected the sides 
of the piece, and drew the diagonal lines; after which I 
removed a section of the piece and placed the bisected 
lines on the diagonal lines, and drew the lines to form the. 
octagonal prism required. 

Having the side of a hexagon, or six-sided prism given;: 
to find the size of the piece, and the angles required. 
Draw A B, Fig. 2, equal in length to 2 of the given sides. 
Place the square on the points A and B, with the given 
side B C on the tongue; then A B and A C determines the 
size of the piece, and ABC the angle required to form the 
prism. The other sides are found by the same operation 
with the square, or by dividing the line A B into four equal 
parts, and from the points drawing the diagonal line C G, 
and the perpendicular lines C D and C F. 

To find the area of the prism, multiply the length of the 
blade C A by six, the number of sides ; the product will be 
the area required. 





Plate 1 



» 





































8 


CARPENTRY. 


PLATE 2. 

Exhibits the operation of finding a section of the hip rafters 
for a?i obtuse and acute-a?igled building , with the steel 
square. 

Figure i. —The plan and elevation of an obtuse and 
acute-angled building ; also, the elevation of the common 
rafters. Join F S and G S, the plan of the hip rafters. 
Draw A B and C E at right angles to A C, the common 
rafter ; join B F. To find the lengths of the hip rafters: 
from the point A as centre, with A C as radius, describe an 
arc; from the point C, and extend to the line H J, join F 
J and G H, the lengths required. 

To find the backing, or section of the hip rafters for the 
obtuse angle when in position, place the square on the 
line of the rafter, with the distance A B on the blade, and 
the distance C D on the tongue ; then the tongue gives 
the angle required. To find the section of the hip rafter 
for the acute angle, take the distance F B on the blade, 
and C E on the tongue ; then the tongue gives the angle 
to form the section required. 

To find the section or backing of a hip rafter for right- 
angled buildings, place the square on the line of the rafter, 
with the length on the blade and the rise on the tongue ; 
then the tongue gives the angle required. 

The angle to cut the sides of the common and jack raft¬ 
ers, are the same for both. The angle to cut the face of 
the jack rafters are at H and J. The lengths of the jack 
rafters are found by dividing the common rafter into as 
many parts as there are jack rafters required. The hori¬ 
zontal and vertical lines for cutting the hips are shown by 
the dotted lines drawn from G H and F J. 

To find the length of the common rafter A C, place the 
blade of the square on the line A D ; square up twelve 
inches from the point A to the line A C; then the length 
from the point of intersection to the point A, multiplied 
by the number of feet in the line A D, gives the length 
required; also the horizontal and vertical cuts for the ends 
of the rafters. The same operation applies to finding the 
lengths and cuts of braces. 




































































10 


CARPENTRY. 


PLATE 3 

Exhibits a practical demonstration of squaring the circle ; and an 

inscribed ellipse. Also , of finding the intersecting or mitre lines 

for square and octagonal figures. 

To determine the exact size of a square, the contents of which 
shall equal the contents of a circle in square measure, is practi¬ 
cally demonstrated at Fig. i, which represents a circle, and an 
inscribed ellipse. To find the side of square, divide the radius 
A B into seven (7) equal parts ; square up from the point 3, cut¬ 
ting the arc A D at S; join C S, the side of the square, equal in 
area to the area of the circle. Describe the ellipse any size, cut¬ 
ting the line C S at N ; then C N equals the sides of a square 
equal in area to the area of the inscribed ellipse. Place the square 
on the diameter, with the heel at the point S, and find the exact 
size of the square required. 

To find the intersecting line or mitre, for a right angle Fig. 2, 
place the square at equal distances from the heel, then the blade 
and tongue gives the lines required. 

Fig. 3. To find the side of an octagonal prism, when the side 
of the square piece is given: Bisect the sides of the piece ; place 
the square on the side A B, with the length bisected on the blade 
and tongue ; then the tongue cuts the side at the point to gauge 
for the piece to be removed for the prism required. To find the 
size of square required for an octagonal prism, when the side is 
given: Let C D equal the given side; place the square on the line 
of the side, with one-half of the side on the blade and tongue; 
then the tongue cuts the line at the point B, which determines the 
size of the square and the piece to be removed. 

To find the area of an octagonal prism: Multiply the given 
side by eight, the number of sides ; the product by half of the 
altitude of the isosceles triangle formed by the side and diagonal 
lines. The product equals the area required. 

BY CALCULATION. 

Suppose I have a lot of ground 40 feet square. Wanting to 
know how far to measure from the angles to form an octagon: 
40-^2=20X20—4004-400=^/800=28.28—40=11.72 feet, the dis¬ 
tance required. 

Wanting to know the size of lot when the side is given: Say 20 
feet-r-2=i oX 10=1004-100== / 200= 14.144-20=34.144-14.14=48.28 
feet square, the size required. 



















































































Plate 3 


a 




Fig.l. 


Fig. 2. 


Fig. 2. 
































PROBLEMS. 


11 


A PRACTICAL METHOD 

Of finding the superficial contents of boards and timber. 

For boards, multiply the width, in inches, by the length, 
in feet, and divide by 12. 

Example .—Find the number of feet in a board 1 inch 
thick, 9 inches wide and 13 feet long. 

13 

9 


12)117 

9*9=9 feet 9 inches. 

Example 2d.—Find the number of feet in a piece of 
timber 3x10 inches, 21 feet long. 

10 inches wide. 

3 “ thick. 


12)30 

2*6 inches in each foot in length. 
21 feet long. 


42 

10*6 


52*6 gives 52 feet 6 inches, the number 
of feet in the piece. 









12 


CARPENTRY. 


PLATE 4. 

Having the side of a six-sided prism, to find the diagonal or 
mitre line , with the square . 

Figure I.—Place the square on the side given, with one- 
half of the side on the tongue; then the tongue and the 
side of the hexagon gives the angle to cut for the mitre. 

Fig. 2 represents the operation of finding the mitre for 
an equilateral triangle, by placing the square on the side, 
with one-half the distance on the blade; then the tongue 
and the sides give the angle required to cut the mitre. 

Fig. 3 represents a quadrant of 90°, with the steel square 
placed equally distant from the heel, on the tongue and 
blade, to intersect the arc at 45°. To find the run to any 
degree of elevation, slide the square to and from the centre 
of quadrant, for the run and height required, which will 
be found useful to workmen in finding the elevation of 
roofs, etc., when specified in degrees by the architect. 




n 


Plaie 4* 


































































ROOFS. 


13 


Construction of Roofs. 

In old Gothic buildings, the roof always had a high 
pitch, its outline formed a striking feature, and in general 
had a graceful proportion with the magnitude of the 
building; sometimes, however, it presented a plain sur¬ 
face of too great extent, as the roof of Westminster Hall. 
Though a high roof is in perfect unison with the aspiring 
and pyramidal character of Gothic architecture, in the 
more chaste and classic style of the Greek, it is a less con¬ 
spicuous object. Many of the Grecian buildings were 
never intended to be roofed at all; but where a roof is 
necessary, it was not attempted to be hidden, but consti¬ 
tuted one of the most ornamental parts of the building. 
Of timber roofs, we have no examples in Grecian build¬ 
ings; but the beautiful stone roof of the Octagon Tower 
of Andronicus Cyrrhestes, and that of the Choragic Monu¬ 
ment of Lysicrates, are sufficient to show that they were 
more inclined to ornament than to hide this essential part 
of a building. 

The height of roofs, at the present time, is seldom above 
one-third of the span, and should never be less than one- 
sixth. The most usual pitch is when the height is one- 
fourth of the span, or when the angle with the horizon is 
26% degrees. 

The pediments of the Greek temples make an angle of 
from 12 to 16 degrees with the horizon; the latter corres¬ 
ponds nearly with one-seventh of the span. The pedi¬ 
ments of the Roman buildings vary from 23 to 24 degrees ; 
24 degrees is nearly two-ninths of the span. 




14 


CARPENTRY. 


PLATE 5 

Exhibits the operation of finding the mitre and butt 
joints for a mill hopper , when the sides are placed at an angle 
of 45° ; also to find the mitre and butt joints to a piece placed 
at any angle from a horizontal to a perpendicular , with the 
steel square. 

Figure i.—The elevation of a mill hopper. To find the 
mitre for the edge and sides, place the square on the line 
of the edge and sides, with A B on the blade and A C on 
the tongue ; then the tongue gives the lines for the face 
and edge required. To find the angle for the butt joint, 
set off from the heel of the square equal to A D on the 
blade and C D on the tongue; then the tongue gives the 
line required. 

Figure 2.— Exhibits the section of a piece placed 
oblique to the base, to be mitred at a right angle. To 
find the line to cut the edge, place the square on the line 
A S, with A C on the blade and A B on the tongue; then 
the tongue gives the line required. To find the line to 
cut the side of the piece, place the square on the line H 
J, with A C on the blade and B C on the tongue; then 
the tongue gives the line required. To find the line to 
cut the edge for the butt joints, place the square on the 
line P R, with E D on the blade and B D on the tongue; 
then the tongue gives the line required. 
















































































• • 































































ROOFING. 


15 


ROOF COVERINGS. 

The kinds of covering used for timber roofs, are cop¬ 
per, lead, iron, tinned iron, slates of different kinds, tiles, 
shingles, gravel, felt and cement. Taking the angle for 
slates to be 2 6y 2 degrees, the following table will show 
the degree of inclination that may be given for other 
materials. 


Kind of covering. 

Inclination to the ho¬ 
rizon, in degrees. 

Height of roof 
in parts 
of the span. 

Weight upon a 
square of roofing. 


Deg. 

Min. 



Tin. 

3 

5 ° 

1 

48 

50 pounds. 

Copper. 

3 

5 ° 

1 

48 

IOO 

Lead. 

3 

5 ° 

1 

48 

V* 

V* 

0 

0 

Slates, large. 

22 

00 

1 

5 

1120 

ordinary.... 

26 

33 

1 

4 

900 “ 

“ fine. 

26 

33 

1 

4 

5°° “ 

Plain tiles. 

2 9 

4 i 

2 

7 

1780 

Gravel. 





Felt and Cement... 






Felt and Cement or Gravel Roofing can be used at almost any inclination 
that other materials are used. 























16 


CARPENTRY. 


PLATE 6. 

Exhibits the operation of finding the lines for the edge and 
side of a piece placed oblique to the base , to be mitred over an 
acute angle . 

At Figure i, draw the base and perpendicular indefi¬ 
nitely ; place the side of the piece A B at the angle re¬ 
quired ; draw A C at right angles to A B ; produce B A 
to D; draw D E parallel to C B ; draw the plan of the 
acute angle required. To find the line to cut the edge, 
place the square on the line, with F G on the tongue and 
A C on the blade ; then the tongue gives the line required. 
To find the line to cut the side A B, place the square on 
the line, with F G on the tongue and A B on the blade * 
then the tongue gives the line required. The angle to cut 
the edge for a butt joint, is shown at E H A. 



Plate 6 


JL 


JL 



T 































































✓ 


TABLES. 


17 


LONG MEASURE. 

Long measure is used in measuring length or distance 
only, without regard to breadth or depth. Its denomina¬ 
tions are leagues, miles, furlongs, rods, yards, feet and inches. 


12 inches - 

make 

I foot. 

3 feet - 

<< 

i yard. 

5^ yards, or 1614 feet, - 

11 

1 rod. 

40 rods - 

u 

1 furlong. 

8 furlongs, or 320 rods, 

u 

1 mile. 

3 miles - 

1 C 

1 league. 


Note.— 4 inches make 1 hand ; 9 inches 1 span ; 18 inches 
1 cubit ; 6 feet 1 fathom ; 4 rods, or 100 links, 1 chain ; 25 links 
1 rod; 7100 inches, 1 link. 

The chain is commonly used in measuring roads and 
land, and is called Gunter’s chain, from the name of the 
inventor. 

A knot, in sea phrase, answers to a nautical or geographi¬ 
cal mile of 5,280 feet. 

Mariner’s measure is a kind of long measure used in es¬ 
timating distances at sea. 

6 feet - make 1 fathom. 

120 fathoms - ‘ 1 cable-length. 

880 fathoms, or cable, ‘ 1 mile. 



I 


18 


CARPENTRY. 


PLATE 7 

Exhibits a piece placed oblique to the base , to be mitred 
over a?i obtuse angle with the steel square . 

To find the line to cut the edge of the piece A B, 
Figure i, place the square on the line, with E D on the 
tongue and B C on the blade ; then the tongue gives the 
line required. To find the line to cut the side A B, 
place the square on the line with E D on the tongue, and 
A B on the blade; then the tongue gives the line required. 
To find the line to cut the edge for a butt joint, place the 
square on the line, with F H on the tongue, and F G on 
the blade; then the tongue gives the line required. 

Figure 2.— To find the centre when an arc is given: 
Draw two chord lines six inches long; then place the 
blade of the square three inches from the heel on each of 
the chords, and at the intersection of the tongues will be 
found the centre required. 


To divide a piece into any number of equal parts, place 
the square on the piece, with the points on the edges ; 
then if 4 equal parts are required, mark the piece from 
the points 6, 12 and 18. If five pieces are required, place 
the heel of the square and the figure 20 on the edge, then 
mark from the points 4. 8, 12 and 16. By this rule the 
piece can be divided into any number from 2 to 24 equal 
parts without the dividers. 

To find the distance to gauge from the angles of a 
square piece to form an octagonal prism : Place the square 
on the side of the piece diagonally ; then gauge from the 
points 7 and 17, the distance required. 


















































































































































TABLES. 


19 


SQUARE MEASURE. 


Square measure is used in measuring surfaces, or things 
whose length and breadth are considered, without regard 
to heighth or depth: as land, flooring, plastering, etc. 
Its denominations are Acres, Roods , Square Rods, Yards, 
Square feet, and Square inches . 

144 square inches - make 1 square foot. 

9 square feet - “ 1 “ yard. 

30X square yards or \ u j 1 square rod, 

272^ square feet, S { perch or pole. 


40 

square rods - “ 

1 rood. 

4 

roods, or 160 square rods “ 

1 acre. 

640 

acres “ 

1 square mile. 


Note. —16 square rods make 1 square chain ; 10 square chains, 
or 100,000 square links, make an acre. Flooring, roofing, plas¬ 
tering, etc., are frequently estimated by the “ square,” which 
contains 100 square feet. 

Note. —A chain is 66 feet in length, and is divided into 100 
equal parts, or links. The length of a link is, therefore, 7.92 
inches. 





20 


CARPENTRY. 


PLATE 8. 

Figure i. —Wishing - to know the height of an obelisk 
situated on a horizontal plane, I measured 70 feet in a 
right line from the centre of its base, and raised a perpen¬ 
dicular five feet high, and placed the square twelve inches 
from the heel, at right angles to the perpendicular; then 
with a straight edge took the angle of elevation of the top, 
which I found to be 8.7 inches to the foot. Multiplied 
by 70=609-]—12=50.75 + 5=55.75 feet, the height required. 

Figure 2.—Wanting to know the distance between two 
inaccessible objects, A and B, from the point C, I draw 
CA and CB ; at right angles to CA and CB, I measured 
thirty feet to the points E and S, where I placed the 
square; then with the straight edge took the observation, 
and found that 12 inches on E C gave 13.2 inches on the 
line C AX30= 396-]—12=33 Let from C to A, and by the 
same operation on the line C S determines the length of 
C B 50 feet. Having found the angle and two sides of the 
triangle C B A, the other side can be found by drawing 
to a scale, or by trigonometry, where two sides and the in¬ 
cluded angle being given, to find the other angles and side . 

Figure 3.—Being on the side of a river, and wanting to 
know the distance to a tree on the other side, I measured 
40 feet at right angles from the tree and station ; placed 
the square at the point, and found by observation that the 
square gave 22.7 inches to the foot, which multiplied 
by 40=908-]-12=75.75 feet, the distance required. 






Plate 


Ficjf. /. 


UH sifts IS I 


?[» 43 Ai /|? <(o \» \S |y !<■ ^71^.7] i 


'ST 

Tc 
























































































TABLES. 


21 


WEIGHT OR FORCE 


REQUIRED TO TEAR ASUNDER ONE SQUARE INCH OF THE DIFFERENT 
MATERIALS USED IN THE CONSTRUCTION OF BUILDINGS. 


WOODS AND METALS. 


Oak, American, 

0 , 30 ° 

Swedish Iron, 

7 8 , 8 5 ° 

Oak, English, 

19,800 

English Iron, 

■ 55,772 

Beech, 

17,700 

French Iron, - 

61,041 

Ash, 

16,700 

Russian Iron, 

- 59,472 

Elm, - 

13,489 

Cast Iron, 

42,000 

Walnut, - 

8,130 

Steel, Soft, - 

- 120,000 

Norway Pine, 

14,300 

Ivory, 

16,000 

Georgia Pine, 

- 7 , 8,8 

Marble, 

8,700 

White Pine, 

8,800 

Whalebone, 

7,600 

Iron Wire, 

- n 3, 0 77 




To find the strength of Cohesion : Multiply area of section, in 
inches, by the weight required to tear one inch asunder, and the 
product is the strength in pounds. 


WEIGHTS 


REQUIRED TO CRUSH ONE CUBIC INCH OF SEVERAL MATERIALS USED IN THE 

CONSTRUCTION OF BUILDINGS 
METALS. WOODS. 


Cast Iron, 

1 

w 

M 

On 

-■1 

O 

O 

Elm, 

t , 28 4 

Brass, 

- i 54 , 7 8 4 

American Pine, - 

1,606 

Copper, Cast, - 

116,102 

White Deal, 

1,928 

Lead, Cast, - 

8,042 

White Oak, - 

- 3,240 



English Oak, 

it 

3 , 860 


STONES. 


Freestone, 

18,000 

Brick, hard, 

i ,754 

Limestone, Black, 

- - 19,450 

Brick, soft, 

- 1,224 

Granite, Blue, 

20,890 

Chalk, 

1,040 





22 


CARPENTRY. 


PLATE 9 . 

Figure i. —Exhibits the use of the square to divide a board 
into any number of equal parts. For example, to divide a board 
into four equal parts, place the points of the blade on the edges 
of the piece, then 6, 12 and 18, will be the points of division. If 
five pieces are required, place the heel of the square and the 
figure 20 on the edges of the piece, then 4, 8, 12 and 16 are the 
points of division. 

Figure 2. —Exhibits the application of the square to find the 
points for eight-squaring timber. Also to cut a piece to fit any 
angle, by extending the line of the blade to A : place the square 
on the piece, transfer the distance extended, and draw the line A 
B, the ahgle required. 

Figure 3—Exhibits the application of the square to find the 
angles of the octagonal figure. 

To find the cuts in the mitre-box.—At Figure 4, place the 
square at equal distances from the heel, on the line A B. To 
prove the truth of the lines, reverse the bevel. To find the per¬ 
pendicular and horizontal cuts of rafters with the square, take 
half the width of the building for the run, on the blade, and the 
rise on the tongue. 

Figure ‘5. —Exhibits two rules for finding the backing of hip- 
rafters ; one with the square, as follows : Place the square on 
the line D E, with the height H B on the tongue, and the length 
A B on the blade ; then the direction of the tongue gives the 
angle required. For an obtuse and acute angled roof ; for the 
obtuse angled hip, place the length of the acute angled hip rafter 
on the blade, and the height on the tongue, then the tongue gives 
the angle required. The same operation on the obtuse angled 
hip rafter gives the angle to bevel the acute angled rafter. 

The other rule is geometrical and applies to right, obtuse, and 
acute angles where the pitches are the same, as follows : From 
the point D as centre, describe an arc from the line L K; tangent 
to the arc, draw the dotted line parallel to D A, cutting the line 
A H at I ; draw I J parallel to A B ; then the line I J gives the 
distance to gauge the rafter for the backing, as shown at section 
G. 



Plate 9 

















































































POSTS. 


23 


POSTS. 

According to the experiments ol Rondelet, when the 
height of a square post is less than about seven or eight 
times the size of its base, it cannot be bent by any pres¬ 
sure less than that which would crush it. The internal 
mechanism of the resisting forces when timber yields by 
crushing is not exactly understood. In timber, the resist¬ 
ance to crushing is less than the cohesive force. The 
resistance of timber to crushing appears to increase in a 
higher ratio than that of the area of its section. 

The load a piece of timber will bear, when pressed in 
the direction of its length, without risk of being crushed, 
may be found by the following rule: 

Multiply the area of the piece of timber, in inches, by 
the weight that is capable of crushing a square inch of 
the same kind of wood, then one-fourth of the product 
will give the load, in pounds, that the piece would bear 
with safety. 

If the area that would support a given weight be re¬ 
quired, divide four times the weight by the number of 
pounds that would crush a square inch, and the quotient 
is the area in inches. 

The length should never exceed ten times the side of 
the section, to give the above results; for, when the 
length is greater than about ten times the thickness, the 
piece will bend before it crushes. 



24 


CARPENTRY. 


PLATE 10. 


To form an ellipse with a thread or string. 

At Fig. i, draw the major and minor axes, A B and 
CD. To find the points for the pins, to describe the ellipse : 
from the point C as centre, with E B as radius, describe 
arcs cutting the major axis at 2 and 3, the points required; 
around the pins and the point C place a cord ; with the 
pencil placed at the point C, describe the ellipse re¬ 
quired. Care should be taken to keep the cord at an even 
tension. 


To draw a polygon of any number of sides . 

To form a polygon of five sides.—From the point A, 
Fig. 2, as centre, with the given side A B as radius, de¬ 
scribe a semi-circle, which divide into five equal parts ; 
through the points of division, draw A 2, A 3 and A 4, in¬ 
definitely ; parallel to A 3 and A 4, draw B C and 2 D ; 
join C D, which completes the polygon required. 

To form the false ellipse. 

Figure 3. Draw the major and minor axes, A B and 
C D ; join B C, and divide into three equal parts; draw 
N E at right angles to C B : from the point E as centre, with 
E C as radius, describe the arc R N: from the point S as 
centre, with S B as radius, describe the arc N P. The 
opposite sides are found in the same manner. 

Figures 4, 5 and 6 are simple geometrical operations, 
an inspection of which is sufficient for their comprehen¬ 
sion. 





Plate 10 


F«,.l 












































TABLES 


25 


WEIGHT IN POUNDS 

OF A CUBIC FOOT OF WOOD OR STONE. 


WOOD. STONE. 


Apple-tree, 

49 6 

Flint, - - - 


163.2 

Ash T * 

- 5 2 9 

Blue Granite, 

- 

164.1 

Birch, 

33 - 2 

Limestone, 


* 99 - 

American Cedar, - 

- 35 - 1 

Grindstone, 

- 

I 34 * 

Elm, 

42 . 

Slate Stone, 


167. 

White Pine, 

- 35 - 6 

Marble, 

- 

170. 

Yellow Pine, 

41.i 

Freestone, 


1 5 °- 

Mahogany, 

- 66.5 

African Marble, - 

- 

169.2 

Maple, - 

47 - 

Egyptian Marble, 


166.8 

Mulberry, . 

- 5 6 - 1 

Italian Marble, 

- 

166.1 

Oak, 

5 8 -74 

Roman Marble, 


172.2 

Live Oak, 

- 7 °* 





OTHER SUBSTANCES. 



Cast Iron, 

45°-55 

Air, 


07529 

Wrought Iron, - 

486.65 

Steam, 

- 

03689 

Steel, - 

489.8 

Loose Earth or Sand, 

95 


Copper, - 

555 - 

Common Soil, 

124 


Lead, - 

708.75 

Strong Soil, 

127 


Brass, 

537-75 

Clay, - 

J 35 


Tin, ... 

45 6 - 

Clay and Stones, 

] 60 


Salt-water, (Sea,) 

643 

Cork, 

J 5 


Eresh-water, - 

62.5 

Brick, - 

1 25 




Tallow, 

59 







26 


CARPENTRY. 


PLATE 14. 

Shows a timber foundation for a frame building, with two 
side elevations , framed in the usual manner for good houses .— 
The object of this and the following Plates is first to give 
the inexperienced workman the names used among car¬ 
penters and joiners, of the different pieces of timber used 
in framing, and where they are placed ; also to show the 
method of constructing what is called a balloon frame. 

Figure i. —Shows a timber plan of foundation support¬ 
ed by brick or stone walls. The outside timbers are 
called sills; and, if there are no openings, all other timbers 
are called beams; but when there are openings for chim¬ 
neys or stair-ways, the workman will be required to mor¬ 
tise and tenon the timbers together as shown on the plan. 
The first piece of timber to prepare will be the trimmer, 
shown at A, which is tenoned into the trimmer-beams , 
shown at B B. The short beams tenoned into the trimmer 
are called tail-beams. Figs. 2 and 3 are the front and a 
portion of the side elevation of the frame standing on the 
foundation, showing the posts, beams, enter-ties, plates, 
rafters and braces in their proper places. The timbers 
shown at A A, Fig. 2, are called frame-beams; D D, 
corner-posts , and C C, rafters. At Fig. 3, A shows what 
should be called an intermediate post; the pieces of timber 
called enter-ties , are shown at E E ; the piece of timber 
supporting the rafters at C, represents the plate , and B B 
the sills; the oblique pieces of timber shown on the ele¬ 
vations, are called braces; the timbers shown on each side 
of the openings are called joists , and termed door and 
window joist; those placed between doors and windows, 
are called intermediate joists, or furnngs; all joists cut 
under or over the braces are called cripples; a piece of 
timber placed on piers for the purpose of supporting other 
timbers or partitions, are called summers; a piece of tim¬ 
ber placed on a truss-frame, for the purpose of supporting 
the common rafters, is called a purlin. 







































































































































































































































































































NAILS. 


2 ? 


ADHESION OF NAILS. 

Every carpenter is familiar with the use of nails, and 
possesses a practical knowledge, more or less accurate of 
the force of adhesion of different nails, and in different 
substances, so as to decide, without difficulty, what num¬ 
ber, and of what length, may be sufficient to fasten to¬ 
gether substances of various shapes, and subject to various 
strains. But interesting as this subject unquestionably is, 
it has not been till very recently that the necessary experi¬ 
ments have been made to determine: ist, the adhesive 
force of different nails, when driven into wood of different 
species ; 2d, the actual weight, without impulse, necessary 
to force a nail a given depth ; and 3d, the force required 
to extract the nail when so driven. The obtaining of this 
useful knowledge was reserved for Mr. B. Bevan, a gen¬ 
tleman well known in the mechanical and scientific world 
for the accuracy with which his experiments are con¬ 
ducted. 

Mr. Bevan observes, that the theoretical investigation 
points out an equality of resistance to the entrance and ex¬ 
traction of a nail, supposing the thickness to be invariable; 
but as the general shape of nails is tapering towards the 
point, the resistance of entrance necessarily becomes 
greater than that of extraction; in some experiments he 
found the ratio to be about 6 to 5. 

The percussive force required to drive the common six¬ 
penny nail to the depth of one inch and a half, into dr}" 
Christiana deal, with a cast iron weight of 6.275 lbs. was 
four blows, or strokes, falling freely the space of 12 inches; 
and the steady pressure to produce the same effect was 
400 lbs. 


(■Continued on page 29.) 



I 


28 


CARPENTRY. 


PLATE 12. 

Shozvs the method of constructing what is termed a balloon 
frame . 

Fig. i shows the timber plan ; Figs. 2 and 3, the front 
and side elevations. The foundation timbers should be of 
white pine; all other timbers, of spruce or Eastern pine. 
All the tools the workman requires to construct a frame 
of this kind, are a saw, hammer and chisel. The side-sills 
should be 4x4 inches ; front and rear-sills, four inches 
thick; beams 2x8 or ten inches, according to their length 
and the load they are required to carry. Comer post 4x4 
inches ; door and window joists, 3x4 inches; all other in¬ 
termediate joists, 2x4 inches: plates, 4x4 inches ; rafters, 
3x5 inches. The two outside beams, in second story, are 
spiked to the joists ; those resting on the plates are spiked 
to the rafters. The enter-ties require to be 1^x4 inches 
let into the joists to support second story beams. Each 
tier of beams should have one or two courses of bridging. 
When the frame is completed and sheathed with one inch 
worked boards, placed diagonally and securely nailed to 
every joist, it will be quite as substantial and safe as a 
frame made in the usual manner. 




Plate 12 


3 


li 













































































































































































































NAILS. 


29 


ADHESION OF NAILS. 

A sixpenny nail driven into dry eltn, to the depth of one 
inch, across the grain, required a pressure of 327 pounds 
to extract it; and the same nail, driven endways, or longi¬ 
tudinally, into the same wood, was extracted by a force 
of 257 pounds. 

The same nail driven two inches, endways, into dry 
Christiana deal, was drawn by a force of 257 pounds ; and 
to draw out one inch, under like circumstances, took 87 
pounds only. The relative adhesion, therefore, in the same 
wood, when driven transversely and longitudinally, is 100 
to 78, or about 4 to 3, in dry elm ; and 100 to 46, or about 
2 to 1, in deal; and, in like circumstances, the relative ad¬ 
hesion to elm and deal is as 2 or 3 to 1. 

The progressive depths of a sixpenny nail into dry 
Christiana deal by simple pressure were as follows :— 

One-quarter of an inch, a pressure of 24 lbs. 

Half an inch, - - - - 76 “ 

One inch, - 235 “ 

One inch and a half, - 400 “ 

Two inches, - 610 “ 

In the above experiments, great care was taken by Mr. 
Bevan to apply the weight steadily ; and towards the 
conclusion of each experiment, the additions did not ex¬ 
ceed 10 pounds at one time; with a moderative interval 
between, generally about one minute, sometimes io or 20 
minutes. In other species of wood, the requsite force to 
extract the nail was different. Thus, to extract a com¬ 
mon sixpenny nail from a depth of one inch out of 

Dry Oak, required - 5°7 lbs. 

Dry Beech, - 667 “ 

Green Sycamore, - 3*3 

From these experiments, we may infer that a common 
sixpenny nail, driven two inches into oak, would require 
a force of more than one-half a ton to extract it by a 
steady force. 




30 


CARPENTRY. 


PLATE 13. 

CARPENTRY is the art of cutting and jointing timbers in 
the construction of buildings. 

To cut timbers and adapt them to their various situa¬ 
tions, so that one of the sides of every piece shall be ar¬ 
ranged according to a given plane or surface shown in the 
designs of the architect, is a department of carpentry which 
requires a thorough knowledge of the finding of sections 
of solids, their coverings, and the various methods of 
connecting timbers, etc. 

The art of combining pieces of timber to increase their 
strength and firmness, is called framing. 

The form of a frame should be adapted to the nature of 
the load which it is designed to carry. 

In carpentry, the load is usually distributed over the 
whole length of the framing, but it is generally supported 
from point to point, by short beams or joists. 

First, let us consider a case where the load is collected 
at one point of the frame ; and, in order that the advantage 
of framing may be more obvious, let us suppose all the 
parts of a certain piece of frame-work to be cut out of a 
single beam, which, in a solid mass, would be too weak 
for the purpose. 

Let Fig. i be a piece of timber, cut in the various direc¬ 
tions indicated by the lines passing through it, and let the 
triangular pjece shown at Eand F be removed ; then raise 
the pieces A E and A F till they make close joints at E and 
F, and increase their lengths till they form a frame, or 
truss, as represented at Fig. 2. A small rod of iron with 
suitable nuts, will be required to support the centre of the 
tie, as seen in the drawing. If the depth of the frame at 
the middle be double the depth of the beam, the strength 
of the frame will be a little more than eight times as great 
as that of the beam. If the depth of the frame be three 
times the depth of the beam, as represented at Fig. 2, it 
will be about six times as strong as the beam, and about 
eighteen times as firm ; that is, it will bend only an eight¬ 
eenth part of the distance which the beam would bend, 
under the same weight. 

To render the strength more equal, and to obtain two 
points of support, there may be a level piece of timber 
placed between the inclining ones, as shown at Fig. 3; but 
if a greater weight be placed at G than at H, there will 
be a tendency to spring upwards at H, and inwards at A, 
which may be effectually prevented by the suspension rod 
A A, as shown in the same figure. 





Plate 13 


n 


Pio.l. 

w 


E 

J 

L JF 

\ 



7^ 


----w'-''- 1 



l. 































































































FRAMING. 


31 


It now remains to show why the strength of a piece of 
timber is increased by forming it into a truss; and to have 
a clear conception of this subject is of the utmost impor¬ 
tance in the science of carpentry. 

Let ABC, Fig. 4, be a truss to support a weight applied 
at A. It is evident that the force of the weight will tend 
to spread the abutments, B and C, and the nearer we 
reduce the angle A B C to a straight line, the greater will 
be the pressure, or tendency to spread or increase at A. 
On the contrary, if the height be increased, as at Fig. 5, 
the tendency to spread the abutment will be less. 

The advantage of framing timbers together for the 
purpose of giving strength and firmness having been 
shown, let us proceed to explain how the strain on any 
part may be measured. 

To find the pressure on oblique supports or parts of 
trusses, frames, etc. Let A C, Fig. 6, be a heavy beam 
supported by two posts, A C and B D, placed at equal 
distances from E, the centre of the beam. The pressure on 
each post will obviously be equal to half the weight of the 
beam. But if the posts be placed obliquely, as in Fig. 7, 
the pressure on each post will be increased in the same 
proportion as its length is increased, the height A C being 
the same as before; that is, when A F is double AC, the 
pressure on the post in the direction of its length is double 
half the weight of the beam. Hence it is very easy to find 
the pressure in the direction of an inclined strut, for it is as 
many times half the weight supported as A C is contained 
in A F. Therefore, if the depth A C of a truss to support 
a weight of two tons be only one foot, and A F be ten 
feet, the pressure in the direction of A F will be ten tons. 

It will be observed that when the beam is supported 
by oblique posts, as in Fig. 7, these posts will slide out at 
the bottom, and together at the top, if not prevented by 
proper abutments. The force with which the foot F 
tends to slide out is to half the weight of the beam A B, 
as F C is to A C. Therefore, when F C is equal to A C, 
the tendency to slide out is equal to half the weight sup¬ 
ported ; and if F C be ten times A C, the tendency to 
spread out would be ten times the weight supported. 
Hence it is evident that a flat truss requires a tie of im¬ 
mense strength to prevent it from spreading. If a flat 
truss produces any degree of stretching in the tie, the 
truss must obviously settle, and by settling it becomes 
flat, and consequently exerts a greater strain. In a flat 
truss, therefore, too much caution cannot be used in fit¬ 
ting the joints and choosing good materials. 




32 


CARPENTRY. 


PLATE 14. 

In framing, all pieces placed at right angles to each 
other are cut square or beveled ; but when placed diag¬ 
onally and oblique to the base, require a geometrical 
operation to find a section of the piece whose sides 
shall be in the plane of those it is connected with. It 
is intended, therefore, to present, at this time, a new 
and complete system of lines for finding sections and 
cuts of pieces placed in any position, from the horizontal 
to the perpendicular, by means of tangents and circles. 

Let A B C D, Fig. i, represent the plan of a right- 
angled hip-roof, and B F C the elevation. To find a sec¬ 
tion of the hip-rafters, draw G H* at right angles to B E; 
from the point H as centre, with IT J as radius, describe 
an,arc; from the point G, draw the tangent, cutting the 
line B E at R ; join H R, which forms the angle for the 
section required. 

To find the lengths of the hip and jack-rafters. Draw 
D L, Fig. i, equal to the common rafter C F, Fig. 2 ; join 
CL for the length of the hip-rafters. To find the lengths 
of the jack-rafters, divide the common rafter D L into 
as many parts as there are jack-rafters required. 

To find the bevels for the hip and jack-rafters. Draw 
C N, Fig. 1, equal to C E, and L N equal to P F, Fig. 2; 
then in the angle at L is the down bevel, and at C the face 
bevel, for the hip-rafters. The face and down bevels for 
the jack-rafters are shown at E and F. 

Figure 3 exhibits the application of the foregoing 
system to an obtuse and acute-angled plan; the operation 
is precise^ the same, and consequently needs no furthei 
explanation. 






Bate 14 











































SCREWS. 


33 


ADHESION OF SCREWS. 

A common screw, of one-fifth of an inch, was found to 
have an adhesive force of about three times that of a six¬ 
penny nail. 


ADHESION OF IRON PINS. 

The force necessary to break or tear out a half-inch 
iron pin, applied in the manner of a pin to a tenon in the 
mortise, has likewise obtained the attention of the same 
celebrated experimentalist. The thickness of the board 
was 0.87 inch, and the distance of the center of the hole 
from the end of the board, 1.05 inch. The force required 
was 916 lbs. 

As the strength of a tenon from the pin-hole may be 
considered in proportion to the distance from the end, 
and also as the thickness, we may, for this species of 
wood, obtain the breaking force in pounds, nearly, by 
multiplying together one thousand times the distance of 
the hole from the end, by the thickness of the tenon, in 
inches. 


LENGTH OF IRON NAILS. 

AND NUMBER TO A POUND. 


SIZE. 

LENGTH. 

NO. 


SIZE. 

LENGTH. 

NO. 

3 d 

i\ in. 

420 


io d 

3 in - 

65 

4 ‘ 

15 in. 

270 


12 d 

34 in. 

5 2 

5 " 

if in. 

220 


2 0 d 

3 i in - 

28 

6 d 

2 in. 

175 


3 ° d 

4 in. 

24 

8 d 

2\ in. 

100 


4 ° d 

4i in. 

20 

























34 


CARPENTRY. 


PLATE 15. 

Figure i.— Exhibits rules for finding the backing of the 
hip-rafters , the lengths and cuts of jack-rafters , where the 
pitches are not at the same angle of elevation. 

Let ABC and D be the plan of the roof, A E B the 
plan of the hips, F G and J H the height of the rafters; 
join A G and A H ; then A G will be the pitch of the roof 
over the line E J, and A H the pitch over the line E F, 
and E A the line of intersection. The down and face 
bevels for the jack-rafters and hips are all shown ; the 
principle and method of finding the section of the hip are 
the same as shown on Plate 6. 

Figure 2 . — Exhibits the method of finding the distance to 
kerf the back string for a circular stairs so that when secured 
in its place the saw-kerfs shall be closed. 

To find the distance the saw-kerfs shall be from each 
other, make C D equal the radius of the required circle 
shown at A B, then take a piece the thickness of the string- 
piece, any width ; make a saw-kerf in the centre as shown 
at C ; secure the piece at C and F ; move the piece from 
D until the saw-kerf is closed at C, which will give the 
points for the saw-kerfs required, as shown on the curve 
line at E and D. 

Figure 3 .— Exhibits a very cheap and expeditious plan 
for framing a roof to span from forty to seventy feet. —It 
requires no explanation, further than to say that the tie 
need not be more than 5x8 inches ; the rafters and braces 
5x5 inches ; the battens, of one inch boards spiked to the 
timbers with large nails. It is believed to be the best roof 
that can be constructed, as it has all the advantages of a 
solid mass, without the great weight and the disadvantages 
of the shrinkage of material, which is almost entirely 
obviated by the crossing of the fibres of the wood. 













* 



I 

















































■ 


« 































































































GLUE. 


35 


ADHESION OF GLUE. 

Mr. Bevan glued together, by the ends, two cylinders 
of dry ash wood, one-fifth of an inch diameter and about 
eight inches long; after they had been glued together 24 
hours, they required a force of 1,260 pounds to separate 
them ; and, as the area of the circular ends of the cylin¬ 
ders was 1.76 inches, it follows that the force of 715 pounds 
would be required to separate one square inch. 

It is right to observe, that the glue used in this experi¬ 
ment was newly made, and the season very dry. For in 
some former experiments on this substance, made in the 
winter season, and upon some glue which had been fre¬ 
quently made by occasional additions of glue and water, 
he obtained a result of 350 to 560 pounds to the square 
inch. 

The present experiment, however, was conducted upon 
a larger scale, and with greater care in the direction of 
the resultant force, so that it might be, as near as practi¬ 
cable, in a line passing at right angles through the centres 
of the surfaces in contact. The pressure was applied 
gradually, and was sustained two or three minutes before 
it separated. 

Upon examining the separated surfaces, the glue ap¬ 
peared to be very thin, and did not entirely cover the 
wood, so that the actual adhesion of glue must be some¬ 
thing greater than 715 pounds to the square inch. 

Mr. Bevan also tried the lateral cohesion of fir-wood, 
from a Scotch fir of his own planting, cut down in the 
autumn, sawn into boards, and, at the time of experiment, 
quite dry and seasoned. The force required to separate 
the wood, was 562 pounds to the square inch ; conse¬ 
quently, if two pieces of this wood had been well glued 
together, the wood would have yielded in its substance 
before the glue. 

In a subsequent experiment, made on solid glue, the 
cohesive force was found to be 4,000 pounds per square 

(Continued on page 37.) 





36 


CARPENTRY. 


PLATE 16. 

Exhibits the plan of a roof with internal angles formed 
by a transept and gable placed opposite each other. 

Let A B and C D represent the plan of the valley-rafters ; 
Fig. i and Fig. 2, the elevations of the roofs. To find a 
section of the valley-rafters, draw the dotted line S L, at 
right angles to C D : from the points S and L as centres, 
describe arcs touching the lines C J and C P; tangent to 
the arcs, draw lines from L and S, intersecting on the 
line C D, forming the internal angle required for the 
valley-rafters. The face-bevels for the hips and jack- 
rafters are shown at 3 and 4. The down-bevel for the hip- 
rafters is shown at 2. The down-bevels for the common 
and jack-rafters are £hown at J and P. At A is shown a 
section of the valley-rafters for the gable AD. 

Figure 3 .— Exhibits the plan and elevation of a grain- 
mill hopper ; giving the exact form of the sides, also the 
angle to mitre, or butt the joints, with the angle-piece to 
secure the same. 


























































































GLUE. 


37 


inch ; from which it may be inferred that the application 
of this substance as a cement is susceptible of improve¬ 
ment. 

Glues are found to differ very much from each other, 
in their consistence, color, taste, smell, and solubility. 
Some will dissolve in cold water, by agitation; while 
others are soluble only at the point of ebullition. The 
best glue is generally admitted to be transparent, and of 
a brown yellow color, without either taste or smell. It is 
perfectly soluble in water, forming a viscous fluid, which, 
when dry, preserves its tenacity and transparency in 
every part, and has solidity, color, and viscidity, in pro¬ 
portion to the age and strength of the animal from which 
it is produced. To distinguish good glue from bad, it is 
necessary to hold it between the eye and light ; and if it 
appears of a strong dark brown color, and free from 
cloudy or black spots, it may be pronounced to be good. 
The best glue may likewise be known by immersing it in 
cold water for three or four days, and if it swells consid¬ 
erably without melting, and afterwards regains its former 
dimensions and properties by being dried, the article is of 
the best quality. 

In preparing glue for use, it should be softened and 
swelled by steeping it in cold water for a number of 
hours. It should then be dissolved, by gently boiling it 
till it is of a proper consistence to be easily brushed over 
any surface. A portion of water is added to glue, to 
make it of a proper consistency, which portion may be 
taken at about a quart of water to half a pound of glue. 
In order to hinder the glue from being burned during the 
process of boiling, the vessel containing the glue is gen¬ 
erally suspended in another vessel, which is made of cop¬ 
per, and resembles in form a tea-kettle without a spout. 
This latter vessel contains only water, and alone receives 
the direct influence of the fire. 

A little attention to the following circumstances will 
tend in no small degree, to give glue its full effect in 
uniting perfectly two pieces of wood : first, that the glue 

(Continued on page 39 ) 



38 


CARPENTRY. 


PLATE 17. 

Exhibits the plan and elevatiozi of an obtuse and acute- 
angled building .— The projections of rafters are supported by 
braces. 

At Figure i, A represents the plan of the post; B the 
rafter ; and C, the elevation of the post. At Fig. 4, D 
represents the plate, and the elevation of the rafter. To 
find the bevel for the lower edge of the brace, draw F G 
parallel to the edge of the post; draw the under side of 
the brace at H equal in width to B, Fig. 1. Then, from 
the point G as centre, describe an arc ; from the tangent 
F G, tangent to the arc, draw a line at right angles to 
the brace; join the points of intersection for the angle 
required. The bevel for the edge of the rafter, when in 
the plane of the roof, is given at E ; the bevel for the 
butt joint at the apex, or peak of the roof, is given at F r 

Fig-, 4 - 

FIGURE 5.— To draw a line forming equal angles zvith two 
converging lines. Draw the converging lines A D and 
B C, indefinitely. At any point H, draw H I parallel to 
A D, and H G parallel to B C : from the points I and G 
as centres, describe arcs; through the points of intersec¬ 
tion, draw E F, the line required. 






Plate 17 


n 


















































GLUE. 


39 


. be thoroughly melted, and used while boiling hot; sec¬ 
ondly, that the wood be perfectly dry and warm ; and 
lastly, that the surfaces to be united should be covered 
only with a thin coat of glue, and after having been 
strongly pressed together, left in a moderately warm sit¬ 
uation, till the glue is completely dry. When it so hap¬ 
pens that the face of surfaces to be glued cannot be con¬ 
veniently compressed together in any great degree, they 
should, as soon as besmeared with the glue, be rubbed 
lengthwise, one on the other, several times, in order 
thereby to settle them close. When all the above cir¬ 
cumstances cannot be combined in the same operation, 
the hotness of the glue and dryness of the wood should, 
at all events, be attended to. 

The qualities of glue are often impaired by frequent 
meltings. This may be known to be the case when it 
becomes of a dark and almost black color ; its proper 
color being a light ruddy brown; yet, even then, it may 
be restored by boiling it over again, refining it, and 
adding a sufficient quantity of fresh ; but the fresh is 
seldom put into the kettle till what is in it has been 
purged by a second boiling. 

If common glue be melted with the smallest possible 
quantity of water, and well mixed, by degrees, with lin¬ 
seed oil, rendered dry by boiling it with litharge, a glue 
may be obtained that will not dissolve in water. By boil¬ 
ing common glue in skimmed milk the same effect may 
be produced. 

A small portion of finely levigated chalk is sometimes 
added to the common solution of glue in water, to 
strengthen it and fit it for standing the weather. 

A glue that will resist both fire and water may be pre¬ 
pared by mixing a handful of quick-lime with four ounces 
of linseed oil, thoroughly levigated, and then boiled to a 
good thickness and kept in the shade, on tin plates, to 
dry. It may be rendered fit for use by boiling it over a 
fire like common glue. 




40 


CARPENTRY. 


PLATE 18. 

Exhibits rules for finding the lines to cut a mitre-box for 
sprung mouldings ; also the plans and elevations for octagonal 
and hexagoyial roofs , to find the le?igths and cuts of the angle 
and jack-rafters. 

Let A, Fig. i, represent the elevation of the sprung 
moulding, C D the mitre joint, and N the angle. To find 
the bevels for the top and side of the box: from the point 
E as centre, with E G as radius, describe the semi-circle 
F H : draw E 1 at right angles to E G ; from the points 
F G 1 and H, draw lines at right angles to F H, indefin¬ 
itely : draw C K and D J parallel to F H ; join L K and 
L J. The bevel for the top of the box is shown at M ; for 
the side of the box, at N. 

Figure 2.— Represents the plan and elevation of an 
octagonal roof. To find the backing of the angle-rafters: 
from the point H as centre, describe an arc touching the 
line E G, tangent to the arc; draw B I ; join H J, the 
angle required. —To find the length of the angle and jack- 
rafters, draw K L equal to F G; then L D equals the 
length of the angle-rafters : the length of the jack-rafters 
depends on the distance they are placed from each other. 
The face-bevel for the angle and jack-rafters is shown at 
N ; the down-bevel for the angle-rafter is shown at O ; for 
the jack-rafters, at G. 

Figure 3 .—Represents the plan and elevation of a hex¬ 
agonal roof. The rules for finding the angles and cuts of 
the rafters are the same as shown in the preceding figure; 
therefore, a bare inspection is sufficient for its compre¬ 
hension. 



Plate 18 


3 



Fig. 2 /7l 

/ / / 

§ / / 

/ / / 
f / / 

/ / / 

/ / / 
f / / 

7 // / 

'/ / 

// — / 

1 / 1 / 

y K / 

/f ! 'x/ir 

\ \ • 

\ \ 

JL i X' \ 

l\ 1 XT/ \ 

! /// \ 

1 ]// / \ 


(//I / \ 

A / y / \ 

iSj^J / \ 

[3 (Tv \ 

1 \ 

1/ 

j 

1 /■ — — —\ 


1 

\\ 2C 

i / 

/ -VC // 

/ V /< \ \- 

/ \ / 1 \ 

\ / 1 \ 

\ / t \ 




























































METRIC SYSTEM. 


41 


METRIC SYSTEM OF WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. 

Act of Congress authorizing the decimal system of our weights and measures : 

1. It shall be lawful, throughout the United States of America, to employ the 
weights and measures of the Metric System ; and no contract or dealing, or 
pleading in any court, shall be deemed invalid or liable to objection, because the 
weights or measures expressed or referred to therein, are weights or measures, 
of the Metric System. 

2. The tables in the schedules hereto annexed, shall be recognized in the 
construction of contracts, and in all legal proceedings, as establishing, in terms 
of the weights and measures now in use in the United States, the equivalents of 
the weights and measures expressed therein in terms of the Metric System ; and 
said tables may be lawfully used for computing, determining and expressing, 
in customary weights and measures, the weights and measures of the Metric 
System. 

WEIGHTS. 


METRIC NAME. FRENCH VALUE—METRICAL. AMERICAN EQUIVALENT 


Grams. Measure of water at max. density. Avoir. 


Millier (or Tonneau). . . . 1,000,000. .. 


Quinta]. 100,000... 

Myriagram. 10,000... 

Kilogram (or Kilo) . 1,000. . . 

Hectogram... 100. . . 

Dekagram. 10... 

Gram (French Gramme). 1 . .. 

Decigram.i-ioth. 


Centigram.1-1 ooth 

Milligram. i-ioooth, 


1 cubic meter. . . .2204.6 pounds. 

1 hectoliter. 220.46 “ 

10 liters. 22.046 “ 

I liter. 2.2046 “ 

I deciliter. 3.5274 ounces. 

. 10 cubic centimeters. 0.3527 “ 

1 cubic centimeter. 15.432 grains. 
T-ioth “ “ 1.5432 “ 

10 cubic millimeters. 0.1543 “ 

1 “ “ 0.0154 “ 


LONG MEASURE. 


METRIC NAME AND VALUE. 


AMERICAN EQUIVALENT. 


Myriameter. 
Kilometer. . 
Hectometer, 
Dekameter. 
Meter 
Decime er. . 
Centimeter. 
M illimeter . 


10,000 meters 
1,000 


100 

10 

1 

i-ioth 

i-iooth 

i-ioooth 


< < 

< i• 


6.2137 miles. 
0.62137 “ 
.228 feet 1 inch. 
393.7 inches. 
39-37 
3-937 

0-3937 “ 

0.0394 “ 


SQUARE OR SURFACE MEASURE. 

METRIC NAME AND VALUE. AMERICAN EQUIVALENT. 

Hectare. 10,000 square meters. 2.471 acres. 

Are. 100 “ “ .. 119.6 square yards. 

Centiare. 1 “ “ . 1550 square inches 









































42 


CARPENTRY. 


PLATE 19. 

Exhibits plans and elevations of octagonal and square spires 
for churches or bell towers. 

To find the lengths of the angle posts at Fig. i. Draw 
B A equal to C D ; join E A and F A, the length required. 
The bevel for the intersection of the angle posts is shown 

at A. The bevel for the face of the inter-ties is shown at 

/ 

G. The bevel for the external angle of the posts and the 
sides of the inter-ties is shown at H. 

Figure 2 represents the plan and elevation of a square 
spire, or tower. The operation of finding the lines is the 
same as in Fig. 1. 

To find the centre of a circle when lost. From the 
points A, B, C, Fig. 3, as centres, describe arcs intersect¬ 
ing each other at G D and E F ; through the points of 
intersection, draw lines to intersect each other at the point 
required. 

To erect a perpendicular to a given line, from a given 
point. From the point C, Fig. 4, set off, each way, equal 
distances : from the points describe arcs cutting each other 
at D ; join C D, the perpendicular required. 















































m „ in 






































































































METRIC SYSTEM. 


43 


CUBIC MEASURE OR CAPACITY. 


METRIC NAME AND VALUE. 

Cubic Measure. 
Liters. 


AMERICAN EQUIVALENT. 
Dry Measure. Liquid or Wine Measure. 


Kiloliter. ..1,000. = I. cubic meter, 1.308 cu. yds_264.17 gallons. 

(orStere.) J & 


Hectoliter.. 
Decaliter.. 

Liter. 

Deciliter. .. 
Centiliter.. 
Milliliter... 


100. — .1 “ “ 2 bu. 3.35 pks. 

10. =10. cu. decimeters, 9.08 quarts. 

I. — I. “ “ 0.908 “ _ 

.1 — .1“ “ 6.1022 cu. in... 

.01 =10. cu. centimeters, 0.6102 “ “ .. 
.001= 1. “ “ o.o6r “ “ .. 


26.41 “ 

2.6417 

1.0567 quarts. 
0.845 gibs. 
0.338 fl.ounces. 
0.27 fl. drams. 


Facts Worth Remembering. —One thousand shingles, laid four inches to 
the weather, will cover one hundred square feet of surface ; and five pounds of 
shingle nails will fasten them on. 

One-fifth more siding and flooring is needed than the number of square feet 
of surface to be covered, because of the lap in the siding and matching of the 
floor. 

One thousand laths will cover seventy yards of surface, and eleven pounds 
of lath nails will nail them on. 

Eight bushels of good lime, sixteen bushels of sand, and one bushel of hair, 
will make enough good mortar to plaster one hundred square yards. 

A cord of stone, three bushels of lime, and a cubic yard of sand, will lay one 
hundred cubic feet of wall. 

Five courses of brick will lay one foot in height on a chimney ; six bricks in 
a course will make a flue four inches wide and twelve inches long : and eight 
bricks in a course will make a flue eight inches wide and sixteen inches long. 


PROTECTION AGAINST RUST. 

For farm implements of all kinds, having metal surfaces exposed, for knives 
and forks, and other household apparatus—indeed, for all metals likely to be 
injured by oxidation, or “ rusting,” the application furnished to the American 
Agriculturist by the late Professor Olmstead, author of “ Olmstead’s Natural 
Philosophy,” etc., is most highly recommended. He used it on air-pumps, 
telescopes, and various other apparatus :—Take any quantity of good lard, and, 
to every pound or so, add of common resin (“rosin”) an amount about equal 
to half the size of an egg, or less—a little more or less is of no consequence. 
Melt them slowly together, stirring as they cool. Apply this with a cloth, or 
otherwise, just enough to give a thin coating to the metal surface to l e pro¬ 
tected. It can be wiped off nearly clean from surfaces where it will be un¬ 
desirable, as in the case of knives and forks, etc. The resin prevents rancidity, 
and the mixture obviates the ready access of air and mo : sture. A fresh appli¬ 
cation may be needed when the coat ng is washed off by the friction of beating 
storms, or otherw se. There was talk of patenting this recipe, at one time, 
but Prof. Olmstead dec ded to publish it for the general good. 











44 


CARPENTRY 


PLATE 20. 

Exhibits the operation of finding the curve of what are 
termed, among carpenters, sprung mouldings for circular 
cornices. 

The stuff from which they are obtained is thinner than 
if the angular piece were worked on the moulding. These 
mouldings require brackets, as at Fig. i, placed at proper 
distances, either in a straight or curved line. If they are 
curved, the moulding will require to be bent as in cover¬ 
ing the frustrum of a cone. 

Figure 2.— Represents the plan and elevation of a cir¬ 
cular moulding. To find the radius to describe the curve, 
produce B D to C: from the point C as centre, describe 
the curves required. The curve of the moulding, when in 
position, is shown at D H, and will require to be kerfed at 
proper distances, a rule for which is given in plate 7, 
Fig. 2. 

Figure 3.— Exhibits the elevation of an Ogee cornice. 
The centres from which the curves are described are 
found in the same manner as in the preceding figure. 

A tangent to a circle being given, to find the point of contact. 

From the centre A, Fig. 4, describe the circle: draw 
the tangent B D, indefinitely ; bisect A B ; from the point 
C, describe the arc A B cutting the circle at D, the point 
required. 





Plate 20 




Fig.3. 


Fig.2. 












































































































































































. 






















WOODS. 


45 


VARIOUS WOODS. 

The following are interesting items concerning the commercial value and 
properties of the better known woods, as laid down by the American Builder. 

Elasticity : Ash, hickory, hazel, lancewood, chestnut (small), yew, snakewood. 

Elasticity and toughness : Oak, beech, elm, lignum-vitae, walnut, hornbeam. 

Even Grain (for carving and engraving): Pear, pine, box, lime-tree. 

Durability (in dry works) : Cedar, oak, yellow pine, chestnut. 

Building (ship-building) : Cedar, pine (deal), fir, larch, elm, oak, locust, teak. 
Wet construction (as piles, foundations, flumes, etc.): Elm, alden, beech, oak, 
whitewood, chestnut, ash, spruce, sycamore. 

Machinery and Millwork (frames): Ash, beech, birch, pine,elm, oak. Rollers, 
etc.: Box, lignum-vitae, mahogany. Teeth of wheels: Crab-tree, hornbeam, 
locust. Foundry patterns : Alden, pine, mahogany. 

Furniture (common): Beech, birch, cedar, cherry, pine, whitewood. Best 
furniture : Amboyna, walnut, oak, rosewood, satinwood, sandalwood, chestnut, 
cedar, tulip-wood, zebra-wood, ebony. 

Of these varieties, those that chiefly enter into commerce in this country are 
oak, hickory, ash, elm, cedar, black walnut, maple-cherry, butternut, etc. 

To Measure Grain Bins. —A cubical box i2| inches each way will hold a 
bushel. Hence, to ascertain the contents of a bin, take a stick or rule I2-| inches 
long, and divide it by marks into tenths and hundredths. Measure the length, 
breadth and depth with this rule ; mu'tiply the three dimensions together, and 
the product will be bushels. This is the most convenient and eas : est method 
known. Use the rule as though it were feet and inches. Suppose, for example, 
a bin measures 8.5 in length, 5.7 in width, and 4.9 in depth. The product of 
these is 237.405, or about 237.4 bushels. Every farmer should make such a 
rule, and use it in all cases where the contents of bins or boxes are required. 

It is a common thing, when a screw or staple becomes loose, to draw it out, 
plug up the hole with wood, and re-insert it. It has been found that a much 
better way is to fill up the holes tightly with cork. Screws and irons so secured 
are said to remain perfectly tight as long as when put into new wood. 

To find the length when the width is given, to contain a given number of 
square feet. For example : required the length of a piece 32 inches wide, to 
contain 8 square feet. 8 X 12 = 9 6 X 12 = IT 52 -f- 32 = 3 6 inches, the 
length required. 

A weight of 36,000 pounds attached to a bar of iron, one inch square and 
1,000 inches in length, will draw it out one inch ; 45,000 pounds will stretch it 
two inches ; 54,000 pounds, four inches ; 63,000 pounds, eight inches, and 
72,000 pounds, sixteen inches, when it will finally break. 




46 


CARPENTRY. 


PLATE 21. 

Represents the geometrical operation of fi?iding the lines re¬ 
quired for the sides and edges of pieces placed at a given angle 
oblique to the base. —To butt or mitre over obtuse and acute 
angles. 

To find the bevels required for the obtuse angle, F G 
H, Fig. i. Draw the base A B, indefinitely. Draw C D, 
the angle and height required. To find the angle, to cut 
the face of the piece C D : from the point C as centre, 
with C D as radius, describe an arc cutting the base at R; 
then R G C forms the angle required. To find the angle 
to cut the edge of the piece : from the point H as centre, 
and with H J as radius, describe an arc; tangent to the 
arc, and parallel to N J, draw the dotted line to intersect 
the base at A ; join A G and N F ; then A G C forms the 
angle required. The bevel required for the butt joint is 
given at A. Join AG; then AGC forms the angle 
required. 

The operation of finding the bevels for the acute-angled 
plan at Fig. 2 is nearly the same, and consequently needs 
no explanation. 

These rules will be found useful to workmen in con¬ 
structing boxes where the sides are required to be placed 
oblique to the base. Also for mitring or butting purlins 
or other timbers when placed in similar positions. 





Plate 21 r 



3 


ur 


9 










































RULES. 


47 


Miscellaneous Notes & Rules, 

The greatest force produced by the wind on a vertical 
wall is equal to 40 lbs. to the square foot. 

When a summer or beam has settled one-fortieth of its 
length it is liable to break. 

Laths for plastering will lay 48 feet to the bundle, equal 
to 5a square yards. 

One barrel of lime to one cubic yard of sand, will plas¬ 
ter 17 square yards with two coats. 

It requires 14 bricks to lay 1 foot in length and 1 foot 
in height of an 8 inch wall; 20 bricks for a 12 inch wall, 
and 27 bricks for a 16 inch wall. 

An acre of ground is 2083 feet square, and contains 
43,560 square feet. 

In water, sound passes 4,766 feet per second ; in air, 
1,146 feet per second. 

A Winchester bushel is 183 inches in diameter, 8 inches 
deep, and contains 2,1505 cubic inches. 

A box 16X16 inches square, SI inches deep, will hold a 
bushel. 

A box 12X12 inches square, inches deep, will hold 
half bushel. 

A box 9X9 inches square, 6« inches deep, will hold one 
peck. 

A box 7X7 inches square, 5J inches deep, will hold 4 
qts., or half peck. 

A pile of wood 8 feet long, 4 feet wide and 4 feet high, 
contains one cord=to 128 cubic feet. 

A cistern 5 feet diameter, and 6 feet deep, will hold 30 
barrels, of 32 gallons each. 

A cistern 6 feet diameter, and 6 feet deep, will hold 39 
barrels. 

A cistern 7 feet diameter, and 6 feet deep, will hold 54 
barrels. 


{Continued on page 49 .) 



48 


CARPENTRY. 


PLATE 22- 

Figure i. — Represents a geometrical demonstration of 
finding the side of a square , the area of which shall be equal to 
the area of the circle . Also to find the side of a cube , the con¬ 
tent of which shall be equal to the co?itent of a globe, or ball, 
as follows : 

From the point A as centre, with the radius of the cir¬ 
cle, describe an arc cutting the circle at C : from the point 
C as centre, with C D as radius, describe an arc cutting 
the circle at E. Draw E G parallel to A E, and G S at 
right angles to A B ; join FI S, the side required. To 
find the side of a cube : from the point F as centre describe 
an arc cutting the circle at L; join FI L, the side 
required. 

Figures 2, 3.—Represent the plan and elevation of a 
box, the sides of which are placed at different angles. To 
find the face-bevel for the side 5 L, draw 2 E equal to L 

5 : from the point 2 as centre, describe the arc E T ; square 
over from T to N ; join 2 N, the angle required. The 
face-bevel for the side 2 3 is given at S, The bevel re¬ 
quired to miter the edges is drawn at P. To find the 
angle for butt joints, draw 6 G at right angles to 2 H : 
from the points 6 and G as centres, describe arcs touching 
the lines 2 3 and 2 E ; tangent to the arcs, draw lines from 

6 and G, intersecting on the line 2 H, forming the angle 
required. The bevel to be applied at right angles to the 
joint. 






































































RULES. 


49 


At the depth of 45 feet the temperature of the earth is 
uniform throughout the year. 

Dimensions of drawings for patents in the United 
States, 8.5x12 inches. 

The lap of slates varies from 2 to 4 inches ; the standard 
is assumed to be 3 inches. 

The pitch of a slate roof should not be less than 1 inch 
in height to 4 inches in length. 

According to the last census, there are 2,000 Architects, 
350,000 Carpenters, 45,000 Cabinet makers, and 46,000 
Carriage makers in the United States. 

The strength of a horse is equivalent to that of 5 men ; 
the daily allowance of water for a horse should be 4 gal¬ 
lons. 

Elasticity and Strength. —The component parts of 
a rigid body adhere to each other with a force which is 
termed cohesion. 

Elasticity is the resistance which a body opposes to a 
change of form. 

Strength is the resistance which a body opposes to a 
permanent separation of its parts. 

A horse can draw upon a plank road three times the 
load that he can upon an ordinary broken stone or macad¬ 
amized road. 




50 


CARPENTRY. 


PLATE 23. 

Exhibits the plan and elevation of the angle brackets required 
for internal and external angles, formed with a cord or string. 

To find the points for the pins, to describe the elliptic 
curve required for the angle bracket, square up from S to 
H, Fig. 1, equal to B D : from the point H as centre, with 
S C as radius, describe arcs cutting the major axis at 2 
and 3, the points required. 

Figure 2.— Exhibits the plan and elevation for an inter¬ 
nal angle ; the elliptic curve of the bracket is found in 
the same manner as Fig. 1. 

Figure 3. —Exhibits a geometrical demonstration of 
finding the centre of a circle when lost. Take any points, 
A, C, D, equally distant from each other, as centres, from 
which describe arcs cutting each other; through the 
points of intersection draw lines to intersect at J, the 
point required. 

To erect a perpendicular from the extremity of a given 
line. Draw the line A B, Fig. 4. To find the perpendic¬ 
ular B C ; from any point D as centre, with D B as radius, 
describe an arc, cutting the given line at A; join AD, 
and extend to C ; join B C, the perpendicular required. 




















£■• m 

A 




' 


• 8 








































































Plate 2 3 

































Terms Used in Carpentry. 

Abutment. —The junction or meeting of two pieces of 
timber, of which the fibres of one extend perpendicular 
to the joint, and those of the other, parallel to it. 

Arris. —The line of concourse or meeting of two 
surfaces. 

Back of a Hand-rail. —The upper side of it. 

Back OF a Hip. —The upper edge of a rafter, between 
the two sides of a hipped roof, formed to an angle, so as 
to range with the rafters on each side of it. 

Back-Shutters or Back-Flaps. —Additional breadths, 
hinged to the front shutters, for covering the aperture 
completely when required to be shut. 

Back of a Window. —The board, or wainscoting be¬ 
tween the sash-frame and the floor, uniting with the two 
elbows, and forming part of the finish of a room. When 
framed, it has commonly a single panel, with mouldings 
on the framing, corresponding with the doors, shutters, 
etc., in the apartment in which it is fixed. 

Basil. —The sloping edge of a chisel, or of the iron of 
a plane. 

Batten. —A scantling of stuff from two inches to seven 
inches in breadth, and from half an inch to one inch and 
a half in thickness. 

Baulk.—A piece of fir or deal, from four to ten inches 
square, being the trunk of a tree of that species of wood, 
generally brought to a square for the use of building. 

Bead. —A round moulding commonly made upon the 
edge of a piece of stuff. Of beads there are two kinds: 
one flush with the surface, called a quirk-bead\ and the other 
raised, called a cock-bead. 

Beam.—A horizontal timber, used to resist a force or 
weight; as a tie-beam , where it acts as a string or chain by 
its tension ; as a collar-beam, where it acts by compression ; 


Continued on page 53 . 


52 


CARPENTRY. 


PLATE 24. 

Exhibits rules for finding a section of the raking mould ta 
intersect the horizontal moulding, at any angle of elevation, for 
right-angled buildings. Also for finding a section of the raking 
moulding for the table, placed at any intermediate point, diverg¬ 
ing from the straight line to a right angle. 

To find a section of the raking moulding to intersect the 
horizontal moulding for right-angled buildings. At Fig. 
i, the plan and elevation of the gable are given. Also the 
horizontal and raking moulds required to intersect each 
other when in position. The rules for drawing and trans¬ 
ferring the distances to form the raking moulding at B, 
Fig. i, are simple geometrical operations which the work¬ 
man will find no difficulty in comprehending. 

To find the raking mould for the gable placed on the 
diverging lines i, 2, 3, etc. Produce B S to C equal to S 
E. Divide the quadrant F H into any number of parts. 
Extend the line D F, Fig. 1. to G, equal to the develop¬ 
ment of the arc F H. Produce the lines E S and G H, to 
intersect each other: from the point of intersection draw 
the radiating lines n, 22, etc.; join GE: parallel to G E, 
draw lines from the points 1, 2, 3, etc., to intersect the line 
EF: from the points of intersection, draw lines parallel to 
E D, cutting the line F D at the points 1,2, 3, etc.; join S 1, 
S 2, etc. Then the line S 1 is the angle of elevation from 
which to draw the raking mould for the gable S D E, 
Fig. 1, placed on the diverging line S J, Fig. 2. The 
angle of elevation from which to draw the raking mould 
for the gable S D E, placed on any of the diverging lines, 
is found at the corresponding figures on the line F D ; 
Fig. 1. 

Note. —If the horizontal moulding were continued in the straight line S 
H, though elevated to the angle of the gable, it would not require a change 
of form. But if the elevated line were to diverge from the straight line, 
it would begin to form the right angle, and consequently commence to 
change its form from the horizontal to the raking mould required for the right 
angle. 

Figure 3.—To find a veneer for a Gothic head-jamb 
splayed alike all around. Produce the splay from B to A, 
the radius to describe the veneer required to cover the 
circular jamb. 




































































. 

I 





- . 













- 















. 











































TERMS USED IN CARPENTRY. 


53 


as a bressummer, where it resists a transverse insisting 
weight. 

Bearer. —Anything used by way of support to another. 

Bearing. —The distance in which a beam or rafter is 
suspended in the clear; thus, if a piece of timber rests 
upon two opposite walls, the span of the void is called the 
bearing , and not the whole length of the timber. 

Bench. —A platform supported on four legs, and used 
for planing upon, etc. 

Bevel. —One side is said to be bevelled with respect to 
another, when the angle formed by these two side§ is 
greater or less than a right angle. 

Bird’s Mouth. —An interior angle, formed on the end 
of a piece of timber, so that it may rest firmly upon the 
exterior angle of another piece. 

Blade. —Any part of a tool that is broad and thin ; as 
the blade of an axe, of an adze, of a chisel, etc.; but the 
blade of a saw is generally called a plate. 

Blockings. —Small pieces of wood, fitted in, or glued, 
or fixed, to the interior angle of two boards or other 
pieces, in order to give strength to the joint. 

Board. —A substance of wood contained between two 
parallel planes ; as when the baulk is divided into several 
pieces by the pit saw, the pieces are called boards . The 
section of boards is sometimes, however, of a triangular, 
or rather trapezoidal, form ; that is, with one edge very 
thin ; these are called feather-edged boards. 

Bond-Timbers. — Horizontal pieces, built in stone or 
brick walls, for strengthening them, and securing the bat¬ 
tening, lath, plaster, etc. 

Bottom Rail.—T he lowest rail of a door. 

Boxings of a Window. —The two cases, one on each 
•side of a window, into which the shutters are folded. 

Brace. —A piece of slanting timber, used in truss-par¬ 
titions, or in framed roofs, in order to form a triangle, and 
thereby rendering the frame immovable; when a brace 
is used by way of support to a rafter, it is called a strut. 


(Continued on page 55 .) 




54 


CARPENTRY. 


PLATE 25. 

Exhibits rules for finding the lines to cut the sides and 
edges of a piece placed at a given angle oblique to the base .— 

To miter over right, acute and obtuse angles. 

Draw the acute angle ABC, Fig. i ; join B D, the line 
of intersection ; draw I J, the pitch required. At right 
angles to I J draw I A; from the point I as centre, with I J 
and I A as radii, describe the arcs J K and A G; tangent 
to the arcs, draw lines parallel to A B, indefinitely ; from 
the point B draw a line at right angles to A B, cutting: 
the tangents in L and H ; join L D and H D, the angles 
required. The bevel for the sides of the piece is shown 
at H ; for the edges of the piece, at L. 

Figures 2 and 3 are examples of obtuse and right-angled 
figures; the operation of finding the angles for the bevels 
is the same. Fig. 4 represents the rule for finding the 
lines for a butt joint. The bevel to be applied at right 
angles to the lines on the sides of the piece. 



Plate 25 





















































<# 



TERMS USED IN CARPENTRY. 


55 


Braces, in partitions and spanroofs, are always, or should 
be, disposed in pairs and placed in opposite directions. 

Brace and Bits. —The same as stock and bits, as ex¬ 
plained hereafter. 

Brad. —A small nail, having no head except on one 
edge. The intention is to drive it within the surface of 
the wood by means of a hammer and punch, and to fill 
the cavity flush to the surface with putty. 

Breaking Down, in sawing, is dividing the baulk into 
boards or planks; but, if planks are sawed longitudinally, 
through their thickness, the saw-way is called a ripping-cut 
and the former a breaking-cut. 

To Break-in. —To cut or break a hole in brick-work, 
with the ripping chisel, for inserting timber, etc. 

Breaking Joint. —Is the joint formed by the meeting 
of several heading joints in one continued line, which is 
sometimes the case in folded doors. 

Bressummer OR Breastsummer. —A beam supporting 
a superincumbent part of an exterior wall, and running 
longitudinally below that part .—See Summer. 

Bridged Gutters. —Gutters made with boards sup¬ 
ported below with bearers, and covered over with lead. 

Bridging Floors.—F loors in which bridging joists are 
used. 

Bridging Joists. —The smallest joints in naked floor¬ 
ing, for supporting the boarding for walking upon. 

Butting Joint. —The junction formed by the surfaces 
of two pieces of wood, of which one surface is perpen¬ 
dicular to the fibres, and the other in their direction, or 
making with them an oblique angle. 

Chamber. —The convexity of a beam upon the upper 
edge, in order to prevent its becoming straight or con¬ 
cave by its own weight, or by the burden it may have to 
sustain, in course of time. 

Chamber Beams.—T hose beams used in the flats of 
truncated roofs, and raised in the middle with an obtuse 
angle, for discharging the rain-water towards both sides 
of the roof. 

(Continued on page 57 .) 



56 


CARPENTRY. 


PLATE 26. 

FIGURE i .—Represents tJie geometrical operation of finding 
the curve and length of the body or side of a circular pan. 
Also the side of a square pan the content of which shall be 
equal to the content of the circular pan. 

To find the side of a square pan. From the point F 
as centre, with the radius of the circle, describe an arc 
cutting - the circle at H: from the point H as centre, with 
H S as radius, describe an arc cutting the circle at J : 
draw J R parallel to D F, and R P at right angles to 
G F ; join G P, the side required. The angle for the joints 
is given at A. 

To find the curve required for the body of the circular 
pan, produce the sides C A and D B to intersect at E: 
from the point of intersection, describe arcs from D and 
B, indefinitely. To find the length of the body, join P L: 
then from the point D as centre, with P L as radius, 
describe an arc cutting the curve at N, one-fourth of the 
length required.* 

Figure 2. —Represents three circles, and three inscribed 
squares. The second square equals half the area of the 
first; the third square equals one-fourth the area of the 
first square. The same rule applies to the circles. An 
inspection of the figure is sufficient for its comprehension. 

Figure 3.— Shows a practical rule for finding the bevels 
for mitering pieces placed oblique to the base. 

Draw A B, the angle required ; at right angles to A B, 
draw B C: from the points A and C as centres, describe 
the arcs B D and B E; tangent to the arcs, draw D S 
and E H ; join A S and C H. The bevel for the face 
A B is shown at S; the bevel for the edge is shown at H. 
If butt joints at the angles are required, join A H for the 
bevel at A. 


* Add all necessary mater al for edges and seams. 







Plate 26 





























































TERMS USED IN CARPENTRY. 


57 


Cantalevers. —Horizontal rows of timber, projecting 
at right angles from the naked part ol a wall, for sustain¬ 
ing the eaves or other mouldings. Sometimes they are 
planed on the horizontal and vertical sides, and sometimes 
the carpentry is rough and cased with joinery. 

Carriage of a Stair. —The timber-work which sup¬ 
ports the steps. 

Carcase of a Building. —The naked walls and the 
rough timber-work of the flooring and quarter partitions, 
before the building is plastered or the floors laid. 

Carry-up. —A term used among builders or workmen, 
denoting that the walls or other parts, are intended to be 
built to a certain given height: thus, the carpenter will 
say to the brick-layer, Carry-up that wall; carry-up that 
stack of chimneys ; which means, build up that wall or stack 
of chimneys. 

Casting or warping. —The bending of the surfaces of 
a piece of wood from their original position, either by the 
weight of the wood, or by an unequal exposure to the 
weather or by an unequal texture of the wood. 

Chamfering.—C utting the edge of any thing, origi¬ 
nally right-angled, aslope or bevelled. 

Clamp. —A piece of wood fixed to the end of a thin 
board, by mortise and tenon, or by groove and tongue, so 
that the fibres of the one piece, thus fixed, traverse those 
of the board, and by this means prevent it from casting : 
the piece at the end is called a clamp , and the board is said 
to be clamped . 

Clear Story Windows are those that have no 
transom. 

Cross-Grained Stuff is that which has its fibres run¬ 
ning in contrary positions to the surfaces ; and, conse¬ 
quently, cannot be made perfectly smooth, when planed 
in one direction, without turning it or turning the plane. 

Crown-Post —The middle post of a trussed roof.— See 
King-Post. 

{Continuedon page 59 .) 







68 


CARPENTRY. 


PLATE 27. 

Exhibits the plan and elevation of a circular desk. Also 
the plan and elevation of a circular seat. 

Figures i, 2.—Represent the plan and elevation of the 
circular desk. To find the radii of the arcs required for 
the ribs to form the drum, to bend the circular inclining 
top, A B C D, Fig. 2. Draw G H, the angle shown on the 
elevation, Fig. 1. Square over from I to L; also from 
H to M. From the points L and M as centres, describe 
arcs touching the line G H ; tangent to the arcs, and at 
right angles to GH, draw N J and R K, the radii 
required. To find the centres from which to describe 
the ribs. From the points A and B as centres, with R K 
as radius, describe arcs cutting each other at P, the 
centre required ; from which describe the arc A S B for 
the rib placed over the chord A B. The rib placed over 
the chord C D is found in the same manner. The ribs wilt 
require beveling at the points of contact, A, B. 

Figure 3.— Represents the piece required for the cir¬ 
cular inclining top. The radii to describe the outside and 
inside curves are taken from G I and G H, Fig. 2. The 
radiated lines shown on the piece are grooves for the 
keys required to shape the piece. 

Figures 4, 5.— Exhibit the plan and elevation of a 
circular seat with an inclining back. The rules for find¬ 
ing the radii to describe the seat and back pieces, placed 
parallel to each other when in position, are the same as 
those used for finding the veneer for a Gothic head-jamb, 
splayed alike all around. 











Plate 27 


























































♦ 


TERMS USED IN CARPENTRY. 53 


Curling Stuff. —That which is occasioned by the 
winding or coiling of the fibres round the boughs of the 
tree, when they begin to shoot from the trunk. 

Deal Timber. —The timber of the fir tree, as cut into 
boards, planks, etc., for the use of building. 

Discharge. —A post trimmed up under a beam, or part 
of a building which is weak or overcharged by weight. 

Door-Frame. —The surrounding case of a door, into 
which, and out of which, the door shuts and opens. 

Dormer, or Dormer Window.—A projecting window 
in the roof of a house; the glass frame, or casements, be¬ 
ing set vertically, and not in the inclined sides of the roofs: 
thus dormers are distinguished from skylights , which have 
their sides inclined to the horizon. 

Drag.—A door is said to drag when it rubs on the 
floor. This arises from the loosening of the hinges, or the 
settling of the building. 

Dragon-Beam. —The piece of timber which supports 
the hip-rafter, and bisects the angle formed by the wall- 
plates. 

Dragon-Piece. —A beam bisecting the wall-plate, for 
receiving the heel or foot of the hip-rafters. 

Edging. — Reducing the edges of ribs or rafters, exter¬ 
nally or internally, so as to range in a plane, or in any 
curved surface required. 

Enter. —When the end of a tenon is put into a mortise,, 
it is said to enter the mortise. 

Face-Mould. —A mould for drawing the proper figure 
of a hand-rail on both sides of the plank; so that when 
cut by a saw, held at a required inclination, the two sur¬ 
faces of the rail-piece, when laid in the right position, will 
be everywhere perpendicular to the plan. 

Fang. —The narrow part of the iron of any instrument 
which passes into the stock. 

Feather-edged Boards. —Boards, thicker at one edge 
than the other, and commonly used in the facing of 
wooden walls, and for the covering of inclined roofs, etc. 


(Continued on page 61 .) 





60 


CARPENTRY. 


PLATE 28. 

Exhibits the operation of finding the angle rafter for French 
Roofs. 

The plan and elevation of the common rafters are shown 
at Figs, i and 2. To find the major and minor axes of the 
elliptic curve required for the angie rafter A B, Fig. 1. 
Draw A D at right angles to A B, equal to S H, Fig. 2; 
from the point D draw a line parallel to A B, indefinitely. 
Through the point P draw C R parallel to D A, equal to 
P B ; then C D equals half of the major axis, and C R equals 
half of the minor axis, of the elliptic curve required. To 
find the points for the pins, to describe the elliptic curve: 
from the point R as centre, with C D as radius, describe 
arcs cutting the major axis at 2 and 3, the points required. 
To form the angle rafter by ordinates, draw any number, 
11, 22, etc.; transfer the distances, and through the points 
trace the elliptic curve required. 

Figure 3. —Represents a simple and easy rule for find¬ 
ing the section of a semi-cylinder cut at a given angle 
oblique to the base. From the points A, B, C, on the 
plan, draw lines at right angles to A C, indefinitely. 
Draw D E, the angle required ; also the oblique angle 
C F. To find the direction of the major axis, set off from 
1 to 2, equal to 3,4; from the point 2 square up to 5, 
equal to 3 B ; join 1, 5, the minor axis; through the point 
1 draw the major axis at right angles to 1, 5, indefinitely. 
To find the points for the pins, to describe the semi¬ 
ellipse: from the point 5 as centre, with 1 D as radius, 
describe arcs cutting the major axis at 6 and 7, the points 
required. 













































































TERMS USED IN CARPENTRY. 


61 


Fence of a Plane. —A guard which obliges it to work 
to a certain horizontal breadth from the arris. 

Filling-in Pieces. —Short timbers less than the full 
length ; as the jack-rafters of a roof, the puncheons or 
short quarters, in partitions, between braces and sills, or 
head pieces. 

Fine-SET. —A plane is said to be fine-set, when the 
sole of the plane so projects as to take a very thin broad 
• shaving. 

Fir Poles. —Small trunks of fir trees, from ten to six¬ 
teen feet in length, used in rustic buildings and out¬ 
houses. 

Free Stuff. —That timber or stuff which is quite clean, 
or without knots, and works easily without tearing. 

Frowy Stuff. —The same as free stuff. 

Furrings. —Slips of timber nailed to joists or rafters, 
in order to bring them to a level, and to range them into 
a straight surface, when the timbers are sagged, either by 
casting, or by a set which they have obtained by their 
weight, in length of time. 

Girder. —The principal beam in a floor for supporting 
the binding joists. 

Glue.—A tenacious viscid matter, which is used as a 
cement, by carpenters, joiners, etc. 

Grind-Stone. —A cylindrical stone, by which, on its 
being turned round its axis, edge-tools are sharpened, by 
applying the basil to the convex surface. 

Ground-Plate or Sill. —The lowest plate of a wood¬ 
en building for supporting the principal and other posts. 

Grounds.—P ieces of wood concealed in a wall, to 
which the facings or finishings are attached, and having 
their surfaces flush with the plaster. 

Handspike. —A lever for carrying a beam, or other 
body, the weights being placed in the middle, and sup¬ 
ported at each end by a man. 

Hanging Stile. —The stile of a door or shutter to 
which the hinge is fastened ; also, a narrow stile fixed to 
the jamb on which a door or shutter is frequently hung. 

{Continued on page 63.) 






62 


CARPENTRY, 


PLATE 29. 

Mitring of Circular Mouldings. 

Some twenty years have elapsed since I first published 
the House Carpenter’s Assistant, in which rules were 
given for the mitring of circular mouldings. The idea, I 
think, originated with me. It being seldom that the work¬ 
man is required to perform the operation of mitring cir¬ 
cular mouldings, yet if he ever should be, a knowledge ot 
the rules here given will make it an agreeable occupation 
rather than an unpleasant task attended with anxiety and 
uncertainty. 

Figure i. —Represents the rule for finding the centres, 
from which to describe the intersecting line, and is appli¬ 
cable to all cases. 

Figure 4. — Shows how nearly impossible it is to accu¬ 
rately perform work of this kind, without the use of the 
compasses for describing the intersecting lines. 














































































TERMS USED IN CARPENTRY. 


63 


Hip-Roof.—A roof the ends of which rise immediately 
from the wall-plate, with the same inclination to the hori¬ 
zon, and its other two sides. The Backing of a Hip is the 
angle made on its upper edge to the range with the two 
sides or planes of the roof between which it is placed. 

Hoarding.—A n enclosure of wood about a building, 
while erecting or repairing. 

Jack-Rafters. —All those short rafters which meet the 
hips. 

Jack Ribs. —Those short ribs which meet the angle 
ribs, as in groins, domes, etc. 

Jack Timber.—A timber shorter than the whole length 
of other pieces in the same range. 

Inter-tie or Enter-tie. —A horizontal piece of timber, 
framed between two posts, in order to tie them together. 

J OGGLE-Piece. —A truss post, with shoulders and 
sockets for abutting and fixing the lower ends of the 
struts. 

Joists. —Those beams in a floor which support, or are 
necessary in the supporting of, the boarding or ceiling ; 
as the binding , bridging and ceiling joists; girders are, 
however, to be excepted, as not being joists. 

Juffers. —Stuff of about four or five inches square, and 
of several lengths. This term is out of use, though fre¬ 
quently found in old books. 

Kerf. —The way which a saw makes in dividing a piece 
of wood into two parts. 

King-Post. —The middle post of a trussed roof, for 
supporting the tie-beam at the middle and the lower ends 
of the struts. . 

Knee.—A piece of timber cut at an angle, or having 
grooves to an angle. In hand-railing a knee is part of the 
back, with a convex curvature, and therefore the reverse 
of a ramp, which is hollow on the back, now called over 
or under easing. 

Knot. —That part of a piece of timber where a branch 
had issued out of the trunk. 


(Continued on page 65 .) 




64 


CARPENTRY. 


PLATE 30. 

The designs drawn in this plate are given to show what 
can be done with the saw, a few chisels and the plough, 
which are all the tools required to construct the sash. 
Although the bead and rosette, placed in the panels, will 
add very much to the appearance of the door, the work¬ 
man requires no sash tools to construct the sash, or mould¬ 
ing planes for the door, such as are necessary to make the 
common paneled doors and sash now in general use. The 
sash need not be over one and one-fourth inches in thick¬ 
ness. The splays can be tinted, and when done by an 
artistic painter, present both taste and style in the design ; 
to add to which, the door may be tinted and shaded in 
three or four colors. The designs here given can be seen 
in the building now occupied by the author in Newark, 
N. J. 




Plate 30 









































































































































































































TERMS USED IN CARPENTRY. 


65 


Lining of a Wall. —A timber boarding, of which the 
edges are either rebated or grooved and tongued. 

Lintels. —Short beams over the heads of doors and 
windows, for supporting the inside of an exterior wall; 
and the super-incumbent part over doors, in brick or 
stone partitions. 

Lower Rail. —The rail at the foot of a door next to 
the floor. 

Lying Panel. —A panel with the fibres of the wood dis¬ 
posed horizontally. 

Margins or Margents. —The flat part of the stiles and 
rails of framed work. 

Middle Rail. —The rail of a door which is upon a 
level with the hand when hanging freely and bending the 
joint of the wrist. The lock of the door is generally fixed 
in this rail. 

Mitre. —If two pieces of wood be formed to equal an¬ 
gles, or if the two sides of each piece form an equal in¬ 
clination, and two sides, one of each piece, be joined to¬ 
gether at their common vertex so as to make an angle, or 
an inclination double that of either piece, they are said to 
be mitred together, and the joint is called the mitre. 

Mortise and Tenon. —The tenon, in general, may be 
taken at about one-third of the thickness of the stuff. 

When the mortise and tenon are to lie horizontally, as 
the juncture will thus be unsupported, the tenon should 
not be more than one-fifth of the thickness of the stuff; in 
order that the strain on the upper surface of the tenoned 
piece may not split off the under cheek of the mortise. 

When the piece that is tenoned is not to pass the end 
of the mortised piece, the tenon should be reduced one- 
third or one-fourth of its breadth, to prevent the necessity 
of opening one side of the tenon. As there is always 
some danger of splitting the end of the piece in which 
the mortise is made, the end beyond the mortise should, 
as often as possible, be made considerably longer than it 
is intended to remain ; so that the tenon may be driven 
tightly in, and the superfluous wood cut off afterwards. 

(Continued on page 67 .) 




ORNAMENTAL WORK. 


PLATE 31. 

Exhibits the method of constructing a Corinthian truss. 

A represents the eye of its volute at large, with the 
centres numbered on which the curves are described. B 
and C are geometrical views showing the front and side 
elevation. A careful inspection of which will enable the 
workman to construct one of any size he may require. 


PLASTERER'S WORK. 

The measuring and valuation of plasterer's work is con¬ 
ducted by surveyors. All common plastering is measured 
by the yard square, of nine feet; this includes the par¬ 
titions and ceilings of rooms, stuccoing, internally and 
externally, etc., etc. Cornices are measured by the foot 
superficial, girting their members to ascertain their widths, 
which multiplied by their lengths, will produce the super¬ 
ficial contents. Running measures consist of beads, quirks, 
arrises, and small mouldings. Ornamental cornices are 
frequently valued in this way ; that is, by the running foot. 

The labor in plasterer’s work is frequently of more con¬ 
sideration than the materials ; hence it becomes requisite 
to note down the exact time which is consumed in effect¬ 
ing particular portions, so that an adequate and proper 
value may be put upon the work. 









TT 






























































TERMS USED IN CARPENTRY. 


67 


But the above regulations may be varied, according as 
the tenoned or mortised piece is weaker or stronger. 

The labor of making deep mortises, in hard wood, may 
be lessened, by first boring a number of holes with the 
auger in the part to be mortised, as the compartments be¬ 
tween may then more easily be cut away by the chisel. 

Before employing the saw to cut the shoulder of a 
tenon, in neat work, if the line of its entrance be correctly 
determined by nicking the place with a paring chisel, 
there will be no danger of the wood being torn at the 
edges by the saw. 

As the neatness and durability of a juncture depend 
entirely on the sides of the mortise coming exactly in con¬ 
tact with the sides of the tenon ; and, as this is not easily 
performed when a mortise is to pass entirely through a 
piece of stuff, the space allotted for it should be first of all 
correctly gauged on both sides. One half is then to be 
cut from one side, and the other half from the opposite 
side ; and as any irregularities, which may arise from an 
•error in the direction of the chisel, will thus be confined 
to the middle of the mortise, they will be of very little 
hindrance to the exact fitting of the sides of the mortise 
and tenon. Moreover, as the tenon is expanded by wedges 
after it is driven in, the sides of the mortise may, in a 
small degree, be inclined towards each other, near the 
shoulders of the tenon. 

Mullion or Munnion.— A large vertical bar of a win¬ 
dow frame, separating two casements, or glass-frames, from 
each other. 

Vertical mullions are called munitions; and those which 
extend horizontally are transoms. 

Muntins or Montants.— The vertical pieces of the 
frame of a door between the stiles. 

Naked Flooring. —The timber-work of a floor for sup¬ 
porting the boarding or ceiling, or both. 

Newel. —The post, in a dog-legged stairs, where the 
winders terminate, and to which the adjacent string-boards 
are fixed. 

(G ntinued on page 69 .) 





STAIRS. 


PLATE 32- 

To build stairs, the workman will first get the size of 
the room and the height of the story which determines 
the width of the steps and risers ; the length of which 
and the size of the opening are a matter of taste or con¬ 
venience. The cylinder is staved up and secured with 
glue and screws. The string pieces are secured to the 
cylinder in the same manner. 

To find the development or stretchout of the cylinder r 
Fig. i, describe the arcs 2, 3, and 4, 5 ; from the point 5,. 
draw the diagonal 5, 7, at an angle of 45 0 ; then 7, 8, equals 
one-half of the semi-circle that forms the cylinder ; set 
off from 2 to A and B equal to 7, 8; draw the elevation 
of the steps and risers, Fig. 2, below and above the plat¬ 
form. Then the front string-piece should be wide enough 
to receive suitable width of timber to support the stairs. 
Form the easing on the stretchout of the cylinder, which 
completes the elevation for a platform stairs. 

Figure 3. —Is an elevation of the cylinder and easing 
for a straight flight of stairs. The back string-piece 
should be mortised about ^6 of an inch deep, and large 
enough to receive wedges, glued, to secure the steps and 
risers. 

The workman should in all cases imagine that he sees 
what he wants and can do it; now suppose we place the 
centre of the cylinder, Fig. 2, over the centre of the plan, 
then bring the lower and upper ends of the string-pieces 
around until the lines from A and B stand over the points 
9 and 8, and the steps correspond with the steps on the 
plan, which will be the case if executed according to the 
drawings. 



Plate 32 




































































































TERMS USED IN CARPENTRY. 


69 


Ogee.—A moulding - , the transverse section of which 
consists of two curves of contrary flexure. 

Panel.— A thin board having all its edges inserted in 
the groove of a surrounding frame. 

Pitch of a Roof. —The inclination which the sloping 
sides make with the plane, or level of the wall-plate ; or 
it is the ratio which arises by dividing the span by the 
height. Thus, if it be asked : What is the pitch of such 
a roof? the answer is, one-quarter, one-third, or half. 
When the pitch is half, the roof is a square, which is the 
highest that is now in use, or that is necessary in practice. 

Plank. —All boards above an inch thick are called 
planks. 

Plate. —A horizontal piece of timber in a wall, gener¬ 
ally flush with the inside, for resting the ends of beams, 
joists or rafters, upon ; and, therefore, denominated floor 
or roof plates. 

Posts. —All upright or vertical pieces of timber what¬ 
ever ; as truss-posts , door-posts , quarters in partitions, etc. 

Brick Posts. —Intermediate posts in a wooden build¬ 
ing, framed between principal posts. 

Principal Posts. —The corner posts of a wooden 
building. 

Pudlaies. —Pieces of timber to serve the purpose of 
hand-spikes. 

PUNCHEONS. —Any short post of timber. The small 
quarterings in a stud partition, above the head of a door, 
are also called puncheons. 

PURLINS.^—The horizontal timbers in the sides of a roof, 
for supporting the spars or small rafters. 

Quartering.—T he stud work of a partition. 

Quarters. —The timbers to be used in stud partitions, 
bond in walls, etc. 

Rafters. —All the inclined timbers in the sides of a 
roof ; as principal rafters , hip rafters , and common rafters ; 
the latter are called in most countries, spars. 

Rails. —The horizontal pieces which contain the tenons 


(i Continued on page 71.) 





70 


CARPENTRY. 


PLATE 33* 

Exhibits the plan and elevation for a platform stair-case . 

To find the point to bore for the first short baluster on 
the second step. At Fig. i, place the point of the pitch- 
board ; at B, the centre of the newel post, set up on the 
rise from C to A equal to the difference in the heights of 
the newel post and the short baluster, say six inches. 
Then the riser intersects the rail at the point required. 


To form the face mould for the zvreath. 

At Fig. 3, place the pitch-board, and draw the pitch line 
C D ; transfer the distances from the plan, Fig. 2, for the 
width of the mould at the joints. The elliptical curves 
for the outside and inside of the mould are drawn with a 
cord or string. The points for the pins are found in the 
same manner as in plate i, Fig. i. 

The application of the mould and bevel drawn at Fig.. 
3, are demonstrated at Fig. 4. The plank sawed square, 
place the bevel on the joint, and draw the perpendicular 
line ; set off from the centre of the plank, each way, half 
the width and thickness of the rail. Apply the mould, 
and mark the piece for the corners to be removed ; the 
same operation is required for the opposite side. Tack 
the mould on the side opposite the corners to be removed. 
Care should be taken to keep the saw or plane perpen¬ 
dicular to the plane of the rail when in position. Re¬ 
move the surplus wood on the upper and lower sides of 
the plank, and form the wreaths required at Fig. 5. The 
casing on second floor terminates half the height of the 
riser above the point to bore for the first baluster on the 
floor. 






























v. 






























Plate 33 


n 


eg 



Scutesfin.~ / /hot. 



































































TERMS USED IN CARPENTRY. 


71 


in a piece of framing, in which the upper and lower edges 
of the panels are inserted. 

Raising Plates or Top Plates. —The plates on which 
the roof is raised. 

Rank-set.- —The edge of the iron of a plane is said to 
be rayik-set when it projects considerably below the sole. 

Return. —In any body with two surfaces, joining each 
other at an angle, one of the surfaces is said to return in 
respect of the other ; or, if standing before one surface, 
so that the eye may be in a straight line with the other, 
or nearly so, this last is said to return. 

Ridge. —The meeting of the rafters on the vertical 
angle, or highest part of a roof. 

Risers. —The vertical sides of the steps of stairs. 

Roof. —The covering of a house • but the word is used 
in carpentry for the wood-work which supports the sla¬ 
ting or other covering. 

Scantling. —The transverse dimensions of a piece of 
timber ; sometimes, also, the small timbers in roofing and 
flooring are called scantlings. 

Scarfing. — A mode of joining two pieces of timber, 
by bolting or nailing them transversely together, so that 
the two appear as one. The joint is called a scarf , and 
timbers are said to be scarfed. 

Shaken Stuff. —Such timber as is rent or split by the 
heat of the sun, or by the fall of the tree, is said to be 
shaken. 

Shingles. —Thin pieces of wood used for covering, 
instead of tiles, etc. 

Shreadings. —A term not much used at present. 

Skirtings or Skirting Boards. —The narrow boards 
around the margin of a floor, forming a plinth for the 
base of the dado, or simply a plinth for the room itself, 
when there is no dado. 

Skirts of a Roof. —The projecture of the eaves. 

Sleepers. —Pieces of timber for resting the ground- 
joists of a floor upon, or for fixing the planking to, in a 


(Continued o?i page 73,) 




HAND RAILING. 


PLATE 34. 

Figures i, 2.— Represent the plans and elevation of a 
continued hand-rail. At the landing of the first flight, 
also at the starting of the second flight, care should be 
taken, in forming the wreath, to rise from the point A to B 
at the landing, and from C to D at the starting, equal 
to half the height of the riser. The level rail commences 
and terminates at the joints ; consequently one wreath 
only will be required for each of the semi-circular parts of 
the hand-rail. To draw the face mould for the wreaths, 
proceed in the same manner as described in the preceding 
plate. 

The operation of drawing the mould for the wreaths is 
precisely the same for large or small cylinders; but, in 
large openings, it is necessary to place the risers in the 
cylinders. The rules for finding their exact position for 
platform stairs are demonstrated at Fig. 3 and Fig. 4, as 
follows: At Fig. 4, from the point B, draw the pitch-lines 
B D and B E ; set off, above and below, the thickness of 
the rail. Draw G F, at right angles to the plan, equal to 
the riser. At Fig. 3, draw the plan of the rail any size, 
say twelve inches; produce the riser F G from Fig. 4 to 
H, Fig. 3, cutting the cylinder at the points required. 
The same rule may be applied at the landing and starting 
of straight flights, by extending the radius from S to L, 
and placing the rise the same distance from the centre of 
the rail as demonstrated by the dotted line and curves at 
Fig. 1. The width of the rail determines the thickness of 
the plank required for the wreaths. 





























































TERMS USED IN CARPENTRY. 


73 


bad foundation. The term formerly applied to the valley 
rafters of a roof. 

Spars.—A term by which the common rafters of a roof 
are best known in almost every provincial town in Great 
Britain; though, generally, called in London common 
rafters in order to distinguish them from the principal 
rafters. 

Staff. —A piece of wood fixed to the external angle of 
the two upright sides of a wall, for floating the plaster to, 
and for defending the angle against accidents. 

Stiles of a Door are the vertical parts of the framing 
at the edges of the door. 

Struts. —Pieces of timber which support the rafters 
and which are supported by the truss-post. 

Summer. —A large beam in a building, either disposed 
in an outside wall, or in the middle of an apartment, par¬ 
allel to such wall. When a summer is placed under a 
superincumbent part of an outside wall, it is called a 
bressummer , as it comes in abreast with the front of the 
building. 

Surbase. —The upper base of a room, or rather the 
cornice of the pedestal of the room, which serves to finish 
the dado, and to secure the plaster against accidents 
from the back of chairs and other furniture on the same 
level. 

Taper. — The form of a piece of wood which arises 
from one end of a piece being narrower than the other. 

Tenon.— See Mortise. 

Tie. —A piece of timber, placed in any position, and 
acting as a string or tie, to keep two things together 
which have a tendency to a more remote distance from 

each other. 

% 

Transom Windows. —Those windows which have hori¬ 
zontal mullions. 

Trimmers. —Joists into which other joists are framed. 

Trimming Joists. —The two joists into which a trim¬ 
mer is framed. 


Continued on page 75* 





74 


CARPENTRY. 


PLATE 35. 

Exhibits the plan for groin arches designed for stone or brick 
materials. 

To form the diagonal ribs resting on the piers C, D, E, 
F. At Fig. i, describe the semi-circle A G H ; divide the 
arc A G into any number of equal parts ; from the points, 
draw lines at right angles to A H intersecting the diago¬ 
nal line I K; from the points of intersection, draw lines at 
right angles to I K and L M, indefinitely. Transfer the 
distances n, 22, etc. from A H ; through the points trace 
the elliptical curves required. 

Figure 2.— Exhibits the elliptic curve L M drawn with 
a cord or string. 




n 


Plate 35 


3 



IT 


IT 





























































































































* 

























































* 












■ 


































TERMS USED IN CARPENTRY. 


75 


Truncated Roof.—A roof with a flat on the top. 

Truss.—A frame constructed of several pieces of tim¬ 
ber, and divided into two or more triangles by oblique 
pieces, in order to prevent the possibility of its revolving 
round any of the angles of the frame. 

Trussed Roof.—A roof so constructed within the ex¬ 
terior triangular frame, as to support the principal rafters 
and the tie-beam at certain given points. 

Truss-Post. —Any of the posts of a trussed roof, as a 
king-post, queen-post, or side-post, or posts into which the 
braces are formed in a trussed partition, 

Trussells. —Four-legged stools for ripping and cross¬ 
cutting timber upon. 

Tusk. —The beveled upper shoulder of a tenon, made 
in order to give strength to the tenon. 

Uphers. —Fir poles, from twenty to forty feet long, and 
from four to seven inches in diameter, commonly hewn 
on the sides, so as not to reduce the wane entirely. When 
slit they are frequently employed in slight roofs, but 
mostly used whole for scaffolding and ladders. 

Valley Rafter. —That rafter which is disposed in the 
internal angle of a roof. 

Wall Plates.—T he joint-plates and raising plates. 

Web of an Iron. —The board part of it which comes 
to the sole of the plane. 



76 


CARPENTRY. 


PLATE 36. 

Exhibits a Geometrical demonstration of squaring the circle. 

To find the side of a square equal in area to the area of 
the circle. From the point A as centre, with A D as 
radius, describe the circle. From the point D as centre, 
describe the arc A B. From the point B, draw B C at 
right angles to D T. From the point B as centre, with 
B C as radius, describe an arc cutting the circle at F. 
From the point F, parallel to N D, draw a line to inter¬ 
sect the diameter D T at J ; from the point J, draw J S 
at right angles to D T. Join S T, the side required 

To find the side of a square whose sides shall equal the 
circumference of the circle. Produce the line J F to L: 
then T L equals % of the circumference, and \\ of the 
diameter; the side required. 

To find the side of a cube, the content of which shall 
equal the content of a globe or ball. From the point N 
as centre, with N P as radius, describe an arc cutting the 
circle at H. Join H T, the side required. 


(For Rules and Examples see pp. 68 and 69.) 




JI 


Plate 3ft fi 



IT 

































' 



1 



j; . 

■ 
























































. 

. 


































MATHEMATICAL DEMONSTRATION 


OF 

SQUARING THE CIRCLE. 

RULES. 

1. Eleven-fourteenths (£) of the diameter equals one- 
fourth (fif) of the circumference. 

2. To find the area of the circle. Multiply the diameter 
by the radius, and divide the product by 7 ; the quotient 
multiplied by 11 gives the area of the circle. 

EXAMPLE. 

Diameter 28X14=392-^- 7=56X1 1=616, area of circle. 

3. To find the side of a square the area of which shall be 
equal to the area of the circle. Divide the diameter by 14, 
multiply the quotient by n, add to the product one-tenth 
(i) of the diameter, and annex the first figure in the quo¬ 
tient. 

EXAMPLE. 

Diameter 28^-14=2. 

Product 2X11=22. one-fourth (fif) of the circum. 

2.82 : one-tenth (/ 0 ) of the diameter 

Side of square )- with quotient annexed. 

equal in area to v 24.82 
area of circle. ) 

Proof: 28X22=616 ; the square root of which is 
24.8193. Add the quotient when it consists of two 01- 
more figures. 

EXAMPLE. 

Diameter 224-^—14=16 

Product 16X11= 176 One-fourth \}f) of the circum. 

22.4 One-tenth Q 0 ) of the diam. 

Side of square j 16 Quotient added. 

equal in area to- 

area of circle. ' 1 9^*5^ 




MATHEMATICAL DEMONSTRATION. 



Proof: 224x176=39424 the square root of which is 

198.5547- 

4. Eleven-fourteenths (}J) of the area of the circle equals 
the area of a square whose sides are equal to the circum¬ 
ference. 

5. Seven-elevenths (J) of the area of the circle equals the 
area of an inscribed square. 

6. One-fourth {%) of the circumference multiplied by 
nine (9), the product divided by ten (10), equals the side of 
an inscribed squaie, nearly. 

7. To find the diameter when the circumference is given. 
Multiply by seven (7) and divide by twenty-two (22.) 

8. To find the diameter when the area of the circle is given. 
Divide by fourteen (14), and multiply the quotient by 
eleven (11); the square root of the product equals one- 
fourth fi/fi) of the circumference ; to find the diameter 
proceed as in Rule 7. 

These rules give the exact circumference of the circle, 
where the diameters are 1, 2, 3,4, etc., multiplied by seven 
{7), with as much certainty as you can find the root of a 
rational number, and will be found very useful to work^ 
men. 


\. 


t 


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Mathematical Drawing Instruments, 

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One Imperial i6mo volume, bound in cloth, containing 152 pages and over 70 
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By F. EDWARD HULME, Art Master of London, 

% 

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THE AMERICAN 


Stair-Builders’ Guide. 


By L. D. GOULD. 

Illustrated by 32 Original Plates, with Supplement of 5 additional Plates 
showing a variety of Newels, Balusters and Rails, fully 
. described and drawn to scale. 

One 8vo volume. Price, - - - - post-paid, $3.00. 


TESTIMONIAL. 


Newark, N. J., August 21st, 1S75. 


Mr. L. D. Gould. 

Dear Sir :—We have carefully examined your“ American Stair-Builders’ Guide,” and 
cheerfully give our testimony to its merit. Your system of first drawing the eliptical 
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George M. Janssen, Stair-Builder. 






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PRACTICAL LESSONS 

-IN- 


ARCHITECTURAL DRAWI 


—OR— 


How to Make the Working Drawings for Buildings. 



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